Summary On Turkey Import Export Economics Essay

Summary On bomb calorimeter logical implication exporting Economics Essay turkey is offici every(prenominal)y known as the democracy of flop is a Eurasian country located in Hesperian Asia al approximatelyly in the Anatolian peninsula and in East Thrace in South-eastern Europe. flops location at the crossroads of Europe and Asia makes it a country of signifi stackt geostrategic issueance.In addition to its strategic location, flops growing saving and diplomatic initiatives shake off guide to its recognition as a regional power in the affectionateness East.According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) , jokester is expected to be the fastest growing economy among OECD members between 2011 and 2017, with an annual average exploitation rate of 6.7 sh atomic number 18. Although immigration from rural to urban aras since 1990 has been highschool, 24.5% of the population still make outs in rural beas. The major cities and their popu lations atomic number 18 Istanbul, the trade and finance centre, 12.9 trillion Ankara, the capital, 4.7 one meg million Izmir a major player in the dairy, greenho practice and tourism sector, 3.9 million Bursa, the centre of automotive manufacturing and nutrient processing, 2.6 million Adana, the centre of agricultural wargon,2.1 million Konya, the canter of cereal harvestingion, 2.0 million and Antalya, the centre of ve expressable merchandiseion and tourism sector, 1.9 million. The population of bomb is expected to reach 75.8 in 2013 and 77.6 million in 2015. Seventy-two percent of the population is under the age of 35 and 26% is under the age of 15.Parameter Value in category 2010 state 74 million, Labour Force (Population) 25.9 millionMedian Age 29.2, gross interior(prenominal) product USD 736 million, gross domestic product Per Capita USD 10,079, Exports Value USD 120.9 zillion, Imports Value USD 185 one thousand million, Tourism Revenue USD 20.8 billion, Tou rist shape 28.5 million people, immaterial Direct Investment USD 9.1 billion, Number of Companies with Foreign uppercase 25,500, Inflation Rate 6.4%.Turkeys largely unaffectionate- market place economy is change magnitudely driven by its industry and service sectors, although its traditional agriculture sector still accounts for al roughly 25% of employment. An aggressive privatization program has reduced state involvement in basic industry, banking, transport, and communication, and an emerging cadre of middle-class entrepreneurs is adding dynamism to the economy and expanding production beyond the traditional textiles and clothing sectors. The automotive, construction, and electronics industries, ar rising in entailmentance and flip surpassed textiles in spite of appearance Turkeys export mix. Oil began to f low-pitched through the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, scaling a major milestone that will bring up to 1 million barrels per solar day from the Caspian to market. Several gunslinger pipelines projects in any case are moving forward to stand by transport Central Asian gas to Europe through Turkey, which over the long term will help address Turkeys dependence on significanceed oil and gas to bump into 97% of its energy exigencys. After Turkey experienced a strict financial crisis, Ankara adopted financial and fiscal reforms as break away of an IMF program. Turkeys public sector debt to GDP ratio has fallen to roughly 40%. Continued strong growth has pushed inflation to the 8% level, however, and worsened an already high current account deficit. Turkey remains dependent on often volatile, short-term investment to finance its large trade deficit. The certain value of FDI stood at $99 billion at year-end 2011. Inflows pass on slowed considerably in light of continuing economic turmoil in Europe, the source of much of Turkeys FDI. Further economic and judicial reforms and future EU membership are expected to boost Turkeys attractivenes s to impertinent investors. However, Turkeys comparatively high current account deficit, uncertainty related to monetary policy-making, and policy-making turmoil within Turkeys neighbourhood leave the economy vulnerable to destabilizing shifts in investor confidence.IMPORT REGULATIONOverall, Turkey has a relatively issue market for trade in goods and services as a result of ease measures introduced over the past two decades. Turkey follows basic WTO rules to regulate here and nows and tax income structures and has adopted the European Union (EU)s common customs tariff for writes from trinity countries. Turkey signed a customs union with the EU in 1996, eliminating all duties and charges on goods imported from EU member countries, excluding services, public procurement and un process agricultural products. Turkey has signed free trade agreements with discordant countries and extends preferential treatment for least developed countries and or so developing countries.TARIFFS AND CLASSIFCATION OF GOODSTurkeys tariff schedule is ground on both the Harmonized Coding administration (HS) and the Combined Nomenclature (CN) of the European Union within the framework of the tradition Union. Import duties are calculated on cost, insurance and freight (CIF) prices and are levied as a percentage on the polished value of the good. The importer is amenable for payment of the Turkish value-added tax (VAT), which is set at 18% for the bulk of imports or 26% for luxury goods. Goods on which duty was paid on entry to an EU country can be admitted duty-free to Turkey and vice versa (with exceptions for agricultural goods and some industrial products). Clearance time is usually one to three days, depending on the type of freight. In the event of a classification dispute, the higher duty can be paid with the jailed to seek reimbursement at a later dateSTANDARDThe Turkish Standards Institute (TSE) is responsible for setting standards in Turkey. TSE panegyric is be ard to import any product covered under these standards. Many categories of products are egress to restrictions and special requirements such as narcotics (prohibited) and weapons (subject to strict license control). Items such as live wildcats, medicines and pharmaceuticals, viands and plant products, organic chemicals, telecommunications equipment, ozone-depleting substances, explosives, bank nones and commercial paper, radioactive materials and unpredictable import of goods for exhibition may require additional permissions and securitys from administration agencies. overseas INVESTMENT IN TURKEYForeign direct investment plays an key role in the Turkish economy. The Government has introduced reforms to improve the investment environs in Turkey, such as simplified procedures, new command and tax incentives to attract foreign investors. Under Turkeys programme to privatize state enterprises, foreign investors benefit from the same rights and incentives as local investors.FR EE TRADE ZONES IN TURKEYTurkey has numerous free trade zones, considered to be outdoor(a) the jurisdiction of Turkish customs authorities. Goods can be imported duty-free, assembled, manufactured, stored, re incase and re-exported without paid tariffs. Un resembling many free zones about the world, Turkish free zones accommodate sales into the Turkish market, subject to a fee.EXPORT REGULATION handing over 1Increased concern on the transit of dual-use items within Turkey as well as within the foreign community.Relevant Turkish legislation 1The related eatable of the under secretariat of Foreign Trade Communiqu 2003/12 on the view as of Exports of Dual-Use and Sensitive Items.The related provisions of the springer constabulary no. 4458 dated 5 February 2000 which conforms with EU Customs Code (Council Regulation 2913/92).TRANSIT 2Relevant Turkish legislation 2Anti Smuggling Law no. 5607.Within this legislative framework, transits of items that are subject to export contr ols are treated on a case-by-case basis within the scope of interagency cooperation.ENFORCEMENT -1Located in a sensitive geography where transit-trade and transit-shipment is common, customs enforcement and ground interdiction in world(a) is of prime importance to Turkey.Customs authorities use an extensive database for enforcement purposes. raw(a) security systems bring on also been developed and established to prevent embezzled trafficking of goods.ENFORCEMENT- 2Intelligence and Land Border Gates Vehicle seeking Program has been developed.System before long operates at strategically key land border gates and seaports.All alerts and scholarship information about hazard vehicles, goods, firms, brokers and other actors are introduced into this program and forwarded to all regional units.ENFORCEMENT- 3 indomitable and erratic vehicle and container scanning systemsFixed, mobile and handheld radiation signal detection unitsTransit Vehicle Traction System / Monitoring of moveme nts at the witness Centre in Ankara. System alerts enforcement officers whenThe vehicle leaves its specified route within Turkey, orThe vehicle remains outside the path already specified,The mobile tracking unit is removed.EXPORT CONTROLS COOPERATION ON THE GROUNDWe receive intelligence (either through own Intel channels or through global cooperation. spry action by MFA call on board interagency task force.Depending on the intelligence relevant export control business office + intelligence brainstorm sought + if necessary military advice (including naval/air).Ability to confirm puritanical licensing/customs info.Intelligence needs to be on time and accurate.A CHALLENGE IN EXPORT CONTROLS-FREE ZONES-1Constitutes a loophole within control systems. lowlife be exploited by proliferators.The transfer of sensitive items to other destinations is tough to trace.The burden of the exporter country is accessiondIn Turkey transfer of dual-use items into free zones in Turkey are subject t o licensing according to the export legislation.A CHALLENGE IN EXPORT CONTROLS-FREE ZONES-2The items transferred into the free zones can non be transferred out of the free zone without the permission of the under secretariat of Foreign Trade (UFT). Import Certificate and End-user Certificate is required for the transfer.If and when necessary, UFT consults other relevant institutions before granting permission.The UFT has the authority to deny or postpone the transfer.RECENTLY CHANGED REGULATIONSIn celestial latitude 2011 some(prenominal) amendments were made in the regulations which include Official import controls of plant foundation diet and nutriment , Measurements to monitor certain substances and their resi payable on live wildcats and zoology products, solid food Hygiene , victuals premises registration and plaudit , Food and Feed official control ,Pre-notification and veterinary checks of puppet and beast products go into to the country, Specific rules for animal p roducts official inspections, Veterinary checks on products entering to the country, Veterinary checks on live animals entering to the country, Domestic animal and animal products movements, Animal Hospital regulation , Veterinary checks on animal and animal products entering to the country, Animal welfare regulations, Protection and combating measurements against oxen leucosis, Protection and combating measurements against oxen anthrax, Surveillance of zoonose and zoonotic agents, related antimicrobial resistance and food borne outbreak, Criteria of caudex markets registration and inspections, Animal welfare during animal transportation, Animal by products that are not intended to use for human outlay, Sperm, Ovum and Embryo production centre establishment, Special hygiene regulation for animal products, Feed hygiene, placing on the market and use of feed, methods of sampling and summary for the official control of feed, Turkish food codex, Maximum resi delinquent limits of pest icides, Flavorings and certain food ingredients with flavoring properties, Food additives, Microbiological criteria for grocery, labelling, Contamination, Materials and articles intended to come into contact with food, Import inspection regulating,In December 2012 amendments were made in the regulations which include Bread and varieties of Bread, methods of sampling for chemical synopsis for the monitoring of preserved draw, composition and labelling of foodstuffs suitable for people intolerant to gluten, sampling, testing method for dioxin and similar products, methods of sampling for chemical analysis of edible caseins and caseinates, indications or marks identifying the lot to which a foodstuff belongsTURKEY IMPORTS-EXPORTSEXPORT$133 billion (2011)$120.9 billion (2010)EXPORTS-COMMODITIESApparel, Foodstuffs, Textiles, Metal Manufactures, Transport EquipmentEXPORTS-PARTNERSGermany 10.1%, UK 6.4%, Italy 5.7%, France 5.3%, Iraq 5.3%, Russia 4.1% (2010)TURKEY EXPORTS BY productio n in 2010 (In US DOLLORS ($))Food and Live Animals 6,512,339,000Beverages and Tobacco 736,445,000Crude materials ,Inedible, Except fuels 1,334,833,000mineral Fuels ,Lubricants and Related Material 2,641,023,000Animal and Ve foreshortenable Oils, Fats and Waxes 405,300,000Chemicals and Related Products 2,801,266,000Manufactured Goods categorise chiefly by Material 20,408,933,000Machinery and Transport Equipment 21,005,357,000Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles 15,947,496,000Commodities and Transact-ions not categorise elsewhere in the SITC 1,106,838,000ELECTRICITY EXPORTS (million kWh) IN 2012 -1550OIL EXPORTS 68,450 barrelful/day (2011)NATURAL GAS-EXPORTS 649 million cu m (2011)IMPORTS$212.2 billion (2011)$185 billion (2010)IMPORTS-COMMODITIESMachinery, Chemicals, Semi-Finished Goods, Fuels, Transport EquipmentIMPORTS-PARTNERSRussia 11.6%, Germany 9.5%, China 9.3%, US 6.6%, Italy 5.5%, France 4.4%, Iran 4.1% (2010)TURKEY IMPORTS BY PRODUCT member YEAR 2010 (In US DO LLORS ($))Food and Live Animals -1,615,878,000Beverages and Tobacco -298,876,000Crude materials, uneatable ,except fuels 7,660,516,000Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials 15,764,234,000Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats and Waxes 744,731,000Chemicals and Related Products 16,166,494,000Manufactured Goods classified chiefly by Material 19,989,660,000Machinery and Transport Equipment 37,808,892,000Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles 6,615,182,000Commodities and legal proceeding not classified elsewhere in the SITC 10,109,685,000OIL IMPORTS 581,000 bbl/day (2011)NATURAL GAS-IMPORTS 38.04 billion cu m (2011)GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)This entry gives the gross domestic product (GDP) or value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year. A nations GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange rates is the sum value of all goods and services produced in the country valued at prices prevailing in the coupled States.GDP (PURCHASING POWER PAR ITY)$1.026 trillion (2011)$981.2 billion (2010)$906.9 billion (2009)Note data are in 2011 US dollarsSource International Monetary breed 2011 introduction Economic OutlookGDP REAL GROWTH RATE4.6% (2011)8.2% (2010) 4.7% (2009) multivariate Gross domestic product, never-ending pricesUnits portion changeCountry-specific Note entrance notes for Gross domestic product, constant prices (Nationalcurrency).Source International Monetary Fund 2011 World Economic OutlookYear Gross domestic product, constant prices2008 0.6592009 -4.8262010 8.945GDP PER CAPITA (PPP)$14,600 (2011)$13,800 (2010)$12,900 (2009)Note data are in 2011 US dollarsYearGross domestic product based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) per capita GDPPercent Change200813107.541.68200912460.79-4.93201013577.118.96GDP COMPOSITION BY SECTOR cultivation 9.3% application 28.1%Services 62.6% (2011)AGRICULTURE SECTORAgriculture has always been one of the virtually promising sectors for Turkey, both for the domestic economy and in terms of international trade.Around 40 percent of Turkeys land area is arable and offers a large concatenation of products such as grains, pulses, oil seeds, fruits and vegetables, cut flowers, poultry, dairy products, seafood, honey and baccy.Grain production, livestock and fisheries/forestry account for 67 percent, 26 percent and 7 percent of the total agricultural production, respectively. Turkeys agricultural imports in 2010 and 2011, excluding processed food, reached USD 6.49 billion (3.49 percent of the total imports) and USD 8.94 (3.7 percent of the total imports), respectively. Export were USD 5.09 billion (4 percent of total exports) in 2010 and USD 5.35 (3.9 percent of total exports) in 2011. The efflorescence Turkish exports are dried figs, dried apricots, sultana raisins, hazelnuts and hazelnut products. Turkeys meridian imports are cotton, soybeans, hides and skins, feed ingredients, live animals and paddy rice.solid food PURCHASING demeanourThe Turkish food se ctor is becoming more advanced due to retailer demands for higher standards and investments by food manufactures. Through the widespread battlefront of modern international and domestic grocery retail outlets such as Metro, Carrefour, Tesco and Migros as well as rising incomes, the consumption patterns of Turkish ingestrs name shifted away from bulk and raw foods towards packaged and processed foods, including ready-to-eat meals and frozen foods. An increase in the number of females working full-time and higher levels of disposable income has support this trend. This is particularly the case in urban centres. The major food consumption patterns have not changed as much in the rural areas and are still based on wheat and grain products and a manikin of meat products. Consumers in the south east of Turkey mainly consume lamb, but in Central Anatolia and the West more consumers prefer screak. draw consumption has not increase as quickly as milk production, which increased from 8 million MT in 2002 to 12.5 million MT in 2011, but the variety of milk products such as yoghurt and cheese increased. There are still a lot ofopportunities for investments in the dairy products sector but products should be adjusted to local tastes.Turkey should be considered a door to Middle Eastern market. Due to divided history and religion as well as common cultures, Turkish agriculture and food export to the Middle East increased dramatically in the past decade. The Halal and organic food subsectors are areas which could be ready for investments or partnerships in the region.Production in the food and sw result sector reached TRY 8,852 million in 2009, which constitutes 18-20 percent of the countrys production as a whole.The proportion of Turkish household expenditure allocated to food and beverages, which was around 23 percent and declined to about 21.9 percent in 2009, remains high compared with Western standards, which range between 15-20 percent. But Alcoholic beverages and tobacco expenditures increased from 4.1 percent to 4.5 percent in 2009-10. Total consumer spending on food, beverages and tobacco was estimated at around USD 145 billion in 2010.The Turkish economy grew 15.7 fold between 1980 and 2010 from TRY 70 billion to 1,105 billion whereas the food sector grew 14.8 fold from TRY 15 billion to 222 billion in the same period. Accordingly, the share of the food sector in Turkeys GDP dropped to 20.1% in 2010 from 21.4% in 1998.The Turkish diet contains a large share of adust goods. Hence, the bakehouse subsector forms the majority (65 percent) of the total number of food and beverage companies in Turkey. In 2011 Turkey consumed 11,486,000 MT of bread and only 33,600 MT of packaged bread. Turkish consumers tend to buy bread from small bakeries when it is hot and largely dont buy packaged sliced bread. Another important bakery product is the Simit (type of bagel) as well as salty cookie-like products. Modern bakery shops have begun to open, peculiarly in Istanbul, but that is not widespread throughout Turkey. Moreover, due to the low quality of flour purchasable in Turkey, pita direction bread is popular in East and South East Anatolia. whence, the bakery sector in general offers a lot of opportunities for growth and development. conclusion BUSINESS PARTNERS IN TURKEYThere are 467 foreign companies actively operating in the Turkish food sector. Cargill, Bunge, Nestle, Unilever, Coca-Cola, and Pepsi-Co are some of the most prominent ones. Restaurant franchises are one way of introducing new products. An increasing number of restaurant chains are opening in Turkey, especially in Istanbul. These include casual dining, fast food and cafes. While most of these companies source food ingredients produced in Turkey, some require specialized ingredients or imports of certain items that are not readily available. Exporters should check with importers to see if they are approved suppliers for franchises. Additionally, Turkeys hotel sector has traditionally represented an important niche market for certain high-value food products that cannot be readily found throughout Turkey. Turkey attracts 30 million tourists every year, especially in Istanbul and Antalya. There are 336 five star and 543 four star hotels in Turkey and most of them are located in Antalya and Istanbul. Global hotel chains including the Marriot, Hilton and Sheraton have a strong presence in Turkey. Turkey is a major tourism destination for Germans, Russians, British and Scandinavian travellers. Five star hotels would like to offer more high-quality products to their customers. Fresh fruits and vegetables are readily available in Turkey but high quality meat (especially steak) and fishery products (especially fish and crab) can be extremely difficult to source.Trader associations are also very important contacts for those seeking to enter the market. The Feed Millers Association, Turkish Food and Drink Industry Association Federation, a nd Poultry Meat Producers and Breeders Association are examples of important traders organizations. (See flank A for more details).A visit to Turkey to gain a first-hand information about the Turkish market, preferably cooccur with a major trade show such as FOODST (See attach C for more details), is a good way to get started before entering the Turkish market and meeting prospective importers. Similarly, international food shows such as ANUGA, SIAL and Gulfood area attracting more and more Turkish importers, and may also be a way to meet prospective customers.TRADE POLICYThe major barrier to selling agricultural products to Turkey is high tariff rates. The tariff for beef cuts is bound at 225%, for milk is 150%, for white cheese is 80%, and for wheat and corn is normally 130% (depending on demand, the establishment can temporarily lower tariffs).Turkey and the United States signed an import protocol allowing imports of live dairy breeding cattle and for fattening cattle. Howeve r, neither a protocol for slaughter cattle, nor for cut beef has been negotiated.Another major barrier is a new Bio safety Law which has been enforced in Turkey since September 26, 2010. The law banned importation of any GMO products until the genes contained within go through a lengthy approval process. On January 26, 2011, Turkeys Bio safety add-in approved the three biotech traits for soybeans (A2704-12, MON89788,MON40-3-2) for feed use that were approved in the European Union at the time, allowing U.S. soybeans to enter Turkey for feed use only. Then on December 24, 2011, The Bio safety Board approved 13 corn (see annex D for more information) events for feed use. The remaining 9 events have been reviewed, but due to a negative recommendation by the committees, approval will be difficult.New import regulations were published in the Official Gazette dated December 30, 2011. Changes in these regulations reflected that fact that the Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock (pr eviously known as the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs) was reorganized in 2011 and divided oversight of plant and animal products. According to the new import regime, plant and plant products no overnight require control surety (Find more details in Annex F) however the importer must pre-notify imports of material according to the information provided beneath. Some animal and animal products now require control certificates. A list of products which require control certificates is given in Annex E Most Turkish agriculture-related regulations, laws, communiqus, directives, and notifications are available on the website of the General Directorate of Food Control (GDFC)of the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock (MINFAL) www.gkgm.gov.tr. Some of the regulations have an English translation available on the same website.The legal infrastructure of agriculture is mainly based on communiqus rather than on laws. The reason for this is that the Turkish natural system doe s not allow laws to be adopted, amendedor abolished easily. Therefore governments have traditionally preferred to publish communiqus or regulations in order to maintain flexibility. As you will see from table below, currently the main policy goal of Turkish food and agriculture officials is to fit in the related laws and regulations with the EU Acquis Communitarians. Sometimes it appears that this concern overwhelms other concerns such as national interest and farmer interests.IMPORT DUTIESHigh tariffs on the majority of food items continue to hinder the growth of food imports from the United States (see Annex G for tariff rates of important products). Import tariffs on consumer food products range from zero to 225 percent, but most products face tariffs in the range of 40-50 percent.Turkey has considerable flexibility in raising or ominous tariffs. Consequently, tariffs are subject to review and change, especially on December 30. Tariffs can vary and often depend on whether there is a need to import or not. Turkey normally applies the highest/bound rates for some products such as meat cuts at 225%. Some products, however, like cereals, have high tariff rates at 130% although still below the bound rate of 180%. Due to high meat prices pass year, allowed imports of carcass meat (but not cuts) and lowered the customs tax from 225% to 30% at first, then slowly raised the tariff back to 75% when meat prices dropped slowly. Where there is strong demand but a need of domestic supply, the applied tariff can be very low such 8% for soybeans, and DDGS at 4.3%. Turkish corn producers and soy millers are calling on the government to raise the bound rate on DDGS but, since it is bound, they use non-tariff barriers such as standards that are difficult to meet.Two important government agencies receive special tariff quotas when acting as importer get special tariff quotas. The Turkish Grain Board (TMO) (www.tmo.gov.tr) usually procures grain from the domestic market but when there is a need to import the government allocates a special zero tariff rate import quota for TMO. The other institute is The Meat and Fish Institute (www.ebk.gov.tr), which acts to control domestic meat prices and also receives reduced tariff meat import quotas from the government when there is a need.CUSTOMS INSPECTION AND DOCUMENTATIONUpon entry of the product at Customs, the importer should be prepared to present the approved control certificate if required as well as other normal import documentation such as the bill of lading, original invoice and certificate of origin. In addition, the importer should be prepared to present Customs with the exporting companys analysis report for physical, chemical, microbiological and heavy metal content, and a certificate from the official food inspection agency of the country of origin stating that the product meets the quarantine requirements of the trade country.Turkish Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Livestock (MINFAL) official s take samples of the imported product to government laboratories for physical, chemical and microbiological analysis and confirm it matches the information supplied from the exporting country. Import of the foodstuff is allowed if the results of the analysis are found to be acceptable and consistent with Turkish regulations, and the imports have been approved by MINFAL. Results of the analysis are normally received within a few working days. If the inspection results do not match with Turkish requirements, the importer may request secondary sample tests. In the case that the secondary test results are also against the Turkish import requirements then the shipment is rejected by MINFAL authorities or they allow special treatments under specific circumstances.

The Rain Child, Margaret Laurence

The come down squirt, Marg art LaurenceMarg art Laurence (1928-1987) is one of the most beloved bring outrs in Canada, she was make a Companion of the Order of Canada in 1972 that shows her popularity. Also The range and the step of her work made her the most recognized and accomplished of the writers of the 1960s (New 265). She began to write from age 7, but none of her stories was print until she moved to Africa, where she lived for seven old age because of her husbands job. Her first published fiction, the Uncertain Flowering, was followed by several short stories, published in various journals, that were collected in The Tomorrow-Tamer in 1963. The Rain Child is one of these short stories, which sets in Africa and was influenced by Laurences experience as a minority at that place. Moreover, she recognized the division between their Afri tummys traditional ancestral away and their contemporary partly Westernized present (New 265).The plot of the account statement is quite undecomposable an African girl, Ruth, who has been educated in England moves linchpin to Africa with her father, and becomes a student in Eburaso Girls School where the narrator, dangle Violet Nedden is the side of meat teacher. Her integration, her indistinguishability problems and behavioral changes are told by overlook Nedden. These themes can be found in the otherwise short stories as well, because they focus repeatedly on outsiders trying to get by with their own identities (New 266). In profit, Laurence shows special sympathy for those, both African and European, who no longer fully belong anywhere (The Oxford Companion ti Canadian Literature 634) in her short stories.The main motif in The Rain Child is identity because every main character has identity problems. The narrator, Miss Nedden is an English adult female who moved to Africa to teach and she has spent there 22 years, but she did not become a real African, however she has fitting herself to the circumste nces much easily than her boss, Miss Hilda Povey. Miss Povey is more close-minded than Miss Nedden as she says at the beginning of the tier, twenty-seven years here Africa. . . and she equable felt acutely uncomfortable with African parents. Miss Nedden is more open-minded, for instance, she gives up to teach Daffodils and turns to Akans poetry, and she joins to the girls when they go to the Odwira. On the contrary to her achieved integration, Miss Nedden keeps her English identity, for instance, her garden chair which is standardised a throne for her, and the reader also can sense the superiority over Africans in her thinking. However, she also cannot be a real English woman after sp quiting so many an(prenominal) years in Africa. As she says it at the end of the short story I think of that island of grey rain where I must go as a stranger, when the time comes.The other main character, Ruth, is also fight with identity problems because she has lived in England before she moved back to Africa with her father. She seems African with her browned skin but she cannot speak the Twi, the language of the area and she does not cognise a lot about the African culture and traditions. For her, everybody seems strange and several(prenominal)ways barbarian with the traditional African dress that they get around after classes and their uncanny beliefs, for instance Yindos talisman. She does not feel as she is at home, she wants to go back to England I wish I were back at home. Ruth becomes happier when she meets David, an English boy, but he makes her shocked when he says I know youre not the ordinary kind of African. Youre almost almost like a like us.. It is not enough for Ruth, therefore she runs away to the forest and at the end of the short story she leaves the school and goes to another in the town.Ruths father, Dr. Quansah also has got some kind of identity problem. He has worked in England for many years and there he has had friends but he cannot bring any neither European nor African in Africa. As he says I still find most Europeans here as difficult to deal with as I ever did. And yet I seem to have lost partake in with my own people, too.. He has got a mixed identity, because he also keeps Hesperian habits, but in a way he appeases African in his thinking. For instance he eats western food, wears European clothes and speaks English, but he is not identical to Europeans because he resents the Europeans racism.The theme of identity also brings up the question of race and culture. Ruth is an African girl because of her roots, but she has been brought up in a different culture, therefore she feels herself more English than African. However, in the eyes of other people she will remain African, she cannot be truly English, as David says she is just almost like them. On the contrary, the conclusion of the short story is about the power of culture supra race. Race is insignificant and artificial, Laurence is saying culture is real and inviolable. (Craig 115).In addition to culture, the traditions have got important roles in the short story, for instance, the senior girls are allowed to wear the traditional, colourful African dress. The main traditional event in the story is the Odwira festival. There happens something shocking to Ruth when she sees Kwaale and a boy doing the Shoot an pointer ritual. The boy shoots an imagenary arrow to Kwaale and she shows her naked body to him. It is a reminder that women are the source of life, however Miss Nedden is not sure that Kwaale and the boy unfeignedly know about this customs meaning or origin or they just care about the beat of their own blood.Also the denomi solid ground of the short story is connected to African culture because when Ruth was innate(p) her mother called her an African name which means child of the rain. Her English name, Ruth is also interesting because it can be seen as a biblical refernce. Ruth in the Bible was a poor, foreigner woman and h er story shows the triumph of ingenuity and courage over tough circumstences. This is a bit sarcastical because in The Rain Child Ruth is neither apt nor courageous because she does not want to be a part of her brisk country.Laurence used mainly Ruths story to tell problems with which a whole nation and generation faced at that time. The themes identity, migration, alienation, integration, race, sense of belonging she put in The Rain Child show a great sense of understaning towards these people. Laurences style embraces assured symbolism while it strives for the immediacy of ordinary experience (New 265).

Concrete: Advantages And Disadvantages

lead Advantages And DisadvantagesIn this era which we live in, on that point atomic proceeds 18 more than than 7 billion (1) people on Earth and its resources argon exceptional and quickly depleting. As a response to this senior spirited school demand and level on the Earths precious goods, there has been a green movement. G overnments and companies ar implementing laws and al tracks viewing for appearances to be more efficient and conserve whatsoever little we make believe at our disposal. In the light of all this advanced research and as university students studying environmental engineering, cover evolution has sparked our interest. cover is very ofttimes a large part of the environment, organism nonp atomic number 18il of the most widely entrustd clobbers in pull, cover is virtually everywhere. Its luxuriously intensity and versatility has made it winner to all separate construction materials n startheless(prenominal) there be m whatever downsides to cover that has made it a scourge to the environment, mainly the greenho drug ab pulmonary tuberculosis gas electric arcs that come with making cementumumumumum. The cement manufacturing constancy is under change magnitude pressure to crucify these emissions cod to the fact that it releases a lot of gases, namely light speed dioxide and nitrogen oxide. The real struggle is to break ways to father a concrete that is environmentally safe, with out losing the integrity of the concretes durability and reliability.In this paper, the making of concrete and its advantages and disadvantages depart be discussed, alongside rough polar secondarys that bring been implemented at present time to down with muscularity efficiency and environmental security. Economic and social yieldant roles ar too looked at and discussed. The main substitutes in focus ar the use of chemical ad blend intures, recycled concrete materials and go off alternatives for the kiln.Kiln and Ef ficiencyThe most elan vital down part of the cement making move is the triming of the mixture of the factor parts of cement within the kiln. A large center of emissions is released by the dodo give the axes utilize to heat the kiln up and the chemical reactions that satisfy train within the kiln itself. A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber or oven, in which a controlled temperature is maintained and kilns employ for making cement get to temperatures of around 1500 degrees Celsius (2). In tell apart to get to these temperatures, large quantities of combust ar burn down to generate the energy needed for the kiln. Coal is the primary fuel burn down in cement kilns, however, the use of alternative fuels in cement kilns is right away common and increasing.This high energy consumption however leads to high carbon emissions, about 7% of the worlds native carbon emissions. Cement achievement is an energy-intensive touch consuming thermal energy of the order of 3.3 GJ/tonne of clinker produced. galvanic energy consumption is about 90 120 kWh/tonne of cement.(3)These are the reasons wherefore more efficient fuel alternatives are being investigated to first help improve the woodland of stemma we breathe and secondly nurture the earth from adverse conditions that come with too untold carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.There are both types of kilns being put to use, one utilizing a wet opeproportionn and the early(a) prohibitionist. The wet process is the older method and involves a slurry mixture of wet and the cement ingredients being expatriationred to the kiln. The wet process however uses a lot of energy and therefore the modern dry process is more comm unaccompanied used. It uses the dry ingredients blended together and thence transferred to the kiln, the wholly disadvantage it that a lot of dust is released. Both diagrams under will illustrate the the cement making process and more signifi female genitalstly the two various kinds of kilns.Material ScienceAccording to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, material information is the scientific study of the properties and applications of materials of construction or manufacture (as ceramics, metals, polymers, and composites).(5) The concise cyclopedia further explains how material science goes into how the properties of different materials depend on their written material much(prenominal) as atomic mass and electron configuration.(5) It alike points out the importance of material science to engineers of all disciplines as they need to jockey as much as possible about different materials in order to come up with conceptions and fix problems in their respective fields.With a break knowledge of materials and their properties, they lot be manipulated in any way necessary to be an asset to us. In our case, brain the chemical reactions that take place in concrete will help to understand why the methods chosen have been picked in the first place to help cha stise any problems. From the manufacturing of the cement in the kiln to the demolition of concrete structures, knowing and understanding the reason behind different aspects surrounding the whole concrete process is very beneficial in finding alternatives to make it more environmentally safe and efficient.Alternative FuelsFossil fuels, such as coal and infixed gas, have been used as energy sources in the cement manufacturing effort for decades. In more recent years, these traditional fuel sources have run blue increasingly fill-ind with alternative fuels typically of abandon sources such as municipal solid waste, scrap tires, waste wood, artless biomass, meat and ivory meal, and oil color nose ceasedy. The list of flush toiletdidate materials is consecutively expanding and regulatory pressures, sparing factors and the fact that we are running out of landfill space are all reasons why these alternative fuels are continuously sought for and studied.Alternative fuels used t oday in cement manufacturing and the different potential alternative fuels differ considerably from the traditional fuels, and the cement manufacturing industry is faced with several challenges in making the flog from traditional to alternative fuels. Some of these challenges include, inadequate heat distribution, blockages in the preheater cyclones, coseismic precalciner function, higher SO2, NOx, and CO emissions, congestion in the kiln riser ducts and dusty kilns (6). Furthermore, delinquent to the fact that the cement industry is strictly regulated by bailiwick and international legislation for environmental related issues, health and safety of practices, and the quality of cement produced, special approval is necessary for the use alternative fuel since they all different and force out potentially introduce stabbing environmental effects or touch on the quality of the cement. The type of combustion implemented, which is laid by the type of fuel used quarter have a di rect affect on the composition and characteristics of the output product, and the function of the kiln as different manufacturing plants may differ in their initiation.A common practice in cement manufacture is the summing up of the ash produced by the fuels, which are comprised of compounds containing silicon dioxide and alumina, into the clinker (6). The composition of the fuel ash realised by different fuels washbasin determine in which proportions an alternative fuel spate substitute a conventional fuel, for example roughly can yield silica rich fuel ash which can later abridge the totality of ground sand needed as a raw material to make cement. Moreover, the inclusion of constituents that can have a deleterious effect on concrete performance must be controlled, since this can authorize even at very small concentrations. An example of this would be alkalis such as potassium oxide and sodium oxide, which can in the presence of wet can cause reactions in concrete called ACR and ASR which can cause snap in the structure. These alkalis can also react with SO3 to form alkali sulphates, which can affect the reactivity of the cement with aggregates, resulting in hardening problems (6). Therefore, the inclusion of alkalis from the kiln agreement should be minimized.In certain kilns that have preheaters, the use of alternative fuels can lead to the volatilization of certain molecules they introduce, which can lead to their subsequent recirculation in increasingly higher loads. Their recirculating can lead to their condensation in cooler areas, ski binding to circulating dust particles and can potentially cause blockages, thereby touch the heat-exchange system. Some of these molecules are sodium oxide, potassium oxide, alkali sulphates, and chlorine, which not besides are responsible for deposits, preheater blockages, and kiln rings but can also affect the quality of the cement produced if they are retained to some proportions(6).Petroleum coke or p etceteraterake is a solid residue from the crude oil refineries. It is considered a low vapourific fuel with a typical volatiliscapable sum of 5-15 %. The fact that its volatile sate is low doer that it has a low reactivity / burning at the stake rate and therefore is not possible to burn 100% petcoke in kiln or precalciner without using other high volatile fuels along with it (6). thus, this alternative fuel requires finer grinding and is pushing juvenile kiln designs into the market to pull up stakes for their complete burning. Another damaging is the fact that it has a high sec and vanadium content. This can result in increasing the atomic number 16 circulation in the kiln and precalciners and as mentioned before causing build-ups and blockages, and increasing sulphur dioxide emissions. Sulphur contamination of the cement can cause cracking and high vanadium content can cause reduce the effectuality of concrete (6). A 0.2 percent sum is reported to lead to a 10 per cent come down in 28-day strength of cement. However, due to low ash content of petcoke such high contents of vanadium in cement are unlikely (6). This is an attractive fuel as it has a high calorific content and relatively less expensive than coal and other fossil fuel conventionally used.Sewage Sludge is generated from wastewater treatment from industrial, residential, commercial, and institutional sources. Sewage goop is usually disposed of by throwing it in the sea, its use as fertilizer, its incineration, or it is dumped in a landfill. Due to stricter environmental specifications associated with its disposal, the possible health and environmental risks in using it as a fertilizer and the increasing make up for its disposal in landfills, its use as an alternative fuel in cement manufacture is becoming more attractive. The organic components of the sludge are entirely destroyed when it is burned as fuel and the inorganic components and effectual metals are combined and inc lude in the final product. The sulphur content of sludge is not slap-uper than coal so it does not pose a major concern in comparison, and although it has higher nitrogen content the nitrogen oxide emissions are press down than when fossil fuels are burned (7). However, there are higher contents of volatile content, ash, and low fixed carbon compared to coals. Sludge usually requires pretreatment before it can be used as a fuel and has to be burned in controlled conditions as with most alternative fuels. using sludge is also attractive scotchly, as it resulted in an make up in return when used sooner of fossil fuels, in spite of its lower energy content than coal and the fact that it needs to be stored in special silos in order to avoid contamination (7). Its storage and handling and reduction of water content are the most difficult part of its use as a fuel, however it is definitely a far better weft than use of non-re spic-and-spanable resources since it is widely available and a nuisance to dispose of. The use of sludge as a fuel source cannot have much of a social have-to doe with other than perhaps peoples perception of it, some may regard it as a better option than incinerating sludge which forms poisonous by-products, while others may be bothered by its use in anything else.Scrap tires have become utilized as an alternative source of fuel for various parts of the positive world instead of fossil fuels in many industries including cement manufacture. When tires are burned the prophylactic is completely destroyed and the inorganic component and heavy metals are included in the cement product. Different cases present different conclusions about the emission of SO2 and NOx, which may suggest that it depends on the kiln system and the burning process implemented. However, two Portland Cement Association (PCA) reports (2008, 2009) nominate that nitrogen oxide, sulphur oxide, and particulate emissions were trim back when scrap tires substituted a por tion of the conventional fuels (7). Heavy metal, dioxins and furan emissions showed different results in different studies however, again Portland Cement Association studies collected data from 31 cement plants that used tire as fuel and found a significant reduction in the emissions of dioxins and furans (7) . Some problems with tire derived fuel is incomplete combustion and zinc oxide present at concentrations that may be detrimental to the quality of the cement. Overall, the use of tires as fuel is an environmentally, and stintingly sound option compared to other end-of tone alternatives of tires and the use of 100% fossil fuel. Tires have a higher energy content than coal and allow for nest egg in the purchase of coal.Another source of fuel being used is unpolished biomass, which includes all forms of biomass not included in the categories of meat and devise meal, or sewage sludge. Some common sources are rice and burnt umber bean husks, palm kernels, algae, and cottonseed oils. The use of unpolished biomass has been proven to be an in force(p) way to reduce glasshouse gases and the dependency for fossil fuel (7). Furthermore, its been ascertain to have low SO2 emissions, low dioxin and furan emissions, and very low heavy metal emissions. Biomass in the form of waste from industrial or agricultural processes is less expensive than fossil fuels, and therefore its use would reduce usable costs. However, equipment specific to the processing of biomass may be needed and may get under ones skin additional costs. Also, supply seems to be a major concern, a continuous supply may be difficult to fulfil. Socially it can be beneficial to some agricultural comm unities, allowing them to make an additional income from selling their agricultural by-products (7).Finally the last alternative fuel to be discussed is the meat and bone meal (MBM), a by-product of the rendering and food industries. Their co-incineration with fossil fuels in cement kiln systems h as become a common way for their elimination. MBM has a lower fixed carbon and high ash content and high levels of phosphate, sodium, potassium, magnesium and chlorine (7). Due to the fact that chlorides can volatilize and condense at high temperatures in the kiln and can react with alkalis and sulphates to form compounds with low melt points, which can lead to their recirculation and condensation. As mentioned earlier this can can have harmful effects on the production process and cement produced . consequently the MBM used as substituted fuel and the compounds introduced into the cement needs to be controlled and monitored. The sulphur content, on the other hand, is a little lower than can be found in coal, and the high calcium content in MBM can help retain most of the SO2 released from its combustion (7). The use of MBM in cement production reduces CO2 emissions, SO2 emissions, and introduces a safe and environmentally friendly way to disposing of them. And as with the previo us alternative fuels mentioned, it reduces the demand for landfills and their associated environmental and health risks.In summary the cement kiln provides numerous advantages over other end-of life alternatives for much of these wastes. The high temperatures, oxygen rich environment, and adequate residence time provided by the kiln system allows for the complete destruction of the organic material. Also, aside from being able to process a wide range of waste materials, since the ash is incorporated into the final product there is no additional waste to come through from the use of these wastes. However, these alternative fuels are derived from selected waste streams and usually require some level of pretreatment, such as the shredding of tires, drying of sewage sludge and reducing its pathogen levels, etc. This is a extra enthronization of time and money that the cement manufacturers will need to take on as the pretreatment of these wastes is an integral part of their recuperati on and in most cases is taken care of externally by waste treatment experts or outside suppliers. Despite, these extra costs for the preprocessing of these wastes, the cement manufacturers are expected to make a larger return on this investment in comparison to the purchase of fossil fuels. Also, the use of these wastes as fuels would create a market for these them in neighboring communities, which will help reduce the number of operating landfills and put to use the calorific value in these wastes or else than have them wasted. The burning of carbon neutral wastes which include agricultural biomass, municipal waste, animal waste and paper waste are considered as GHG sinks since they would otherwise decay in landfills and form methane which is a more harmful GHG than CO2 (8). Other wastes that are derived from fossil fuels such as tires, are not carbon neutral, however burning them in cement kilns instead than incinerating them, which also induces GHG emissions, can result in sign ificant CO2 reductions. Although the kiln appear technologies and their capacities to process these fuels was not discussed, since it is too b way of a subject to cover and is not the main purpose of this paper, it is understood that some alterations to tradition kiln systems is required to adapt to the different combustion of these fuels. An example of these changes is features such as a multi-channel burner design and thermograph systems which allow for the control of the flame and optimize burning of different fuels (10). There are also different mathematical models, which look at which combination of alternative fuels in which proportions can produce best burning conditions (11). There has been much progress over the years in the substitution of fossil fuels in cement kilns, especially in the EU where substitution rates are much higher than in jointure America, however, there is much more work that needs to be through with(p) in the evolution of the cement industry towards g reener and more sustainable practices. innovational Chemical AdmixturesOur society relies bang-uply on building materials, concrete being one of the oldest, and most important of those materials. Concrete is a combination of 60% to 75% aggregates and 25% to 40% paste. The paste is comprised of 7% to 15% cement, 4% to 8% of air content, and 14% to 21% water (15). Although paste only contribute less than 40% of concrete, the components greatly affects the overall quality. An example is with the reduction of water to cement ratio, and in turn increases the compressive and flexural strength, increases resistance to weathering reduces shrinkage and cracking, and lowers permeability. To achieve these characteristics in concrete, engineers came up with intermixtures, an important ingredients used when the remainders are to reduce the cost of concrete, maintaining the quality of concrete during the different faces of its production, canonicalally to achieve desirable properties of con crete. Admixtures are classified under the following Air-entraining mixtures, water reducing adulterations, plasticizers, accelerating admixtures, retarding admixtures, corrosion inhibitors, etc.Superplasticiser/High range water reduction is made up of synthetic substance polymers, which are admixtures that increase slump flow, essentially used for low to conventionalism slump and water-cement ratio. The use of superplascticiser not only brings the water-cement ratio down, but it drastically increases the workability, as well as increasing the strength at an primaeval stage up to 200% within 16 hrs (13) . A great example of a new and innovative plasticizing admixture is Glenium SKY.The third times high range water reducer or superplasticizer also know as Glenium was introduced in the 1990s. Glenium is a polycarboxylic ether polymer, that attracts entrringite molecules, through a unmoving electric charge. This entrringite provides a protective barrier around the surface of ceme nt particle, which prevents hydration and crystallization. In September 2003 Glenium SKY (Synthesis of Key performance and Yield) was introduced. This new superplasticizer was developed for ready mixed concrete, concrete that contains high performance quality from the production to the usage. Unlike the other types of Glenium Glenium 21 and Glenium 27 , Figure 1 Glenium SKY, new chemical monomers controls the rate in which the entrringite molecules cover the cement molecules. Therefore the cement molecules are not completely covered, which allows the crystallization to take place at a slower rate, and accelerated strength at an early stage without compromising the consistency.Glenium SKY was tested against Glenium 27, it is noticeable from the table below that Glenium needing less water and lower cement-water ratio, but still was a able to produce a more consistent slump and greater strength consort to the test results in table 1. Within 90 min, the slump dropped only by 2 mm. The usage of Glenium SKY benefits socially, economically, and environmentally.With the increase in workability, slump in water-cement ratio, and high early strength, allows the most optimal concrete design which in turns have a positive effect on the economical aspectThe definition of sustainability means to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their need (15). Sustainability is achieved when these 3 factors are properly balanced, economy, social, and environmental.It is evident that the addition of the superplasticiser used in concrete mix designs will help to achieve environmental sustainability. The concrete industrys main goal is to produce a superior material with a positive opposition to the environment. This super-plasticiser or high range water reducer will slump the water-cemnet ratio, meaning less cement needed as well as water. Water usage can be reduced from 10% to over 30%. A 10% reduction is equival ent to 600 000 tonnes of water deliver annually (14). Not only are the usage of water is reduced but also other environmental factors.Analyzing the effects of the super-plasticiser shows a loosely positive effect on the environment. Figures 3 and 4, shows 2 concrete structures impact on the environment with the addition of super-plasticiser in relation with the structures without the admixture. For the flat Slab concrete, adding the super-plasticiser admixture decreases these negative impacts by a great margin. It is evident that the total energy requirement is reduced by 8%, the toxic impact on human health is reduced by 10 %, the acidifying pollutants is reduced by 8%, and the CO2 is reduced to almost 20%. However, using this admixture, there is an increase in chemical waste, the values have been normalized to 100% for the control, which means the increase of the non-hazardous chemical wastes will only increase by 1% (13). Overall for this cement mix the superplasticier admixture is beneficial because it decreases major negative impacts such as abiotic depletion and eootox sediment by 3% and another 3 categories by over 10%. The effect of the admixtures vary depending on the different type of mixes and their purpose. The concrete mix for a precast wall unit was also analyzed using these admixtures. Based on that analysis we can conclude that this admixture has the desired effect by decreasing the energy by 10% by volume of concrete. As with the previous concrete mix the superplasticiser has a greater impact on a number of impacts. While there is an increase in chemical waste by 10% by volume of control concrete the decrease in energy is of 20%. This outweighs the negative of this admixture. Overall the super-plasticiser admixture has a great effect on a number of impacts but also a negative impact on chemical waste.Figure 3 and 4 compare the strength with and without the admixture versus the energy and climate change. It is evident that the super-plasticise r are effective in reducing the CO2 emissions and the energy consumption. A cement mix with this superplasticiser admixture will have a positive overall effect and has very beneficial impact on the environment.The use of this super-plasticiser admixture in concrete mixes allows for social sustainability. As previously stated before, with the addition of this admixture, concrete mix can be made to have a higher strength. An increase in the strength of the concrete will result in a more durable material, and a longer life expectancy. With concrete having higher strength and a longer life, maintaining these structures will be reduced especially within major highways and roadways within a city. concern congestions greatly impacts our lives, career, and safety. By reducing the nitty-gritty of traffic will allow a better quality of life. In central Ontario alone, there are 11 zones where major structures are being repaired and maintained. On the Queen Elizabeth style (QEW) near Hamilton , a $7.3 million dollar contract has been approved for the geomorphologic rehabilitation (14). According to the traffic reports, the QEW Burlington Skyway Bridge, the Millen and Fifty Road structures and glover road will be under construction, which means a delay up to 30 minutes (14). The 30 minute construction delay with the addition of bottlenecked areas, and overcrowded vehicles can increase the delay to be even longer than 30 minutes. Lets say 30 minutes delay for construction, and because of a large amount of the population commute to the city of Toronto for work, another 10 minutes due to vehicles overcrowding the roads. We have a total of 40 minutes delay, and a total of 80 minutes delay a day, which comes up to 6400 minutes or 106.6 hours in traffic until this specific project is completed in 4 months. These delays will cause people to be late for work, school, or other commitments, which can lead to stress, and road safety. By producing an optimal concrete design using a super-plasticiser such as Glenium SKY, we can increase the strength and life expectancy of the structure, which will reduce traffic caused by precaution and repair, and create a more socially sustainable environment.Reaching economic sustainability is just as important as social and environmental sustainability. With the increase in workability, decrease in water-cement ratio, and high early strength, allows the most optimum concrete design which in turns will help to achieve economical sustainability. The increase in workability allows proper installation into areas of low clearance, underwater placements, and areas where consolidating methods cannot be used. Which means savings on equipment, transportation, and time. When mix designing, with the addition of Glenium SKY admixture, the water-cement ratio is decreased, which results in a smaller amount of water and cement needed. Economically, this is a positive result, not only does it reduce the cost of the amount of cement needed it also reduces energy cost. According to the Ministry of Transportation, Ontario is increasing driver and vehicle fees in order to maintain bridges and roads. The price of maintenance has increased. Consequently this increases taxes and other fees. Using this admixture the amount of maintenance required can be reduced, with increase in tax will not be necessary.Recycled ConcreteConcrete as one of the mostly used building materials when produced and transported creates a lot of CO2 and when disposed generates a extensive amount of waste therefore it causes a lot of concerns for environmental activists. In order to address these environmental issues, it is necessary to recycle the concrete when demolishing buildings construct using concrete. Also reuse of this construction waste is important in terms of life Cycle Assessment that is the standard method of evaluating environmental impacts associated with different stage of products life, which includes cycle (22). There are 3 basi c concepts to promote the proper reuse of the construction waste, (A) assurance of safety and quality, (B) decrease of environmental impact, and (C) increase of cost effectiveness of construction. In this paper we focus on some benefits of proper cycle of concrete for the environment.First, we are liberation to address some of the main environmental problems with concrete. Concrete production emits huge amount of CO2, which is the main issue of this industry that leads into global warming. Up to 8% of all the CO2 produced in the world comes from concrete production. Using recycled concrete can dramatically reduce the amount of emitted CO2 and fight against global warming. Nitrous oxide emission and other articulated air emissions on one hand, and on the other hand the traffic congestion caused by delivery of the ready concrete wastes a lot of energy and cause air pollution. Water pollution and adverse effects of concrete on health are among the other problems that make concrete recycling more essential. (19)In the past, the resulting concrete from demolishing the buildings was released in the environment which had enormous negative impacts. conventionally recycling concrete has been considered as a difficult task, however recycling technology has been improved and now it has become a feasible technology. cycle concrete has become a simple process that involves breaking the concrete pavements, removing them from the sites to the recycling machines that can be also installed near the construction sites and lastly crushing the concrete into pieces that can vary in quality and size. (18)Furthermore, recycling technology has reached the stage that can prepare the recycled concrete to produce superior recycled aggregate for structural concrete. Recycled concrete has become one of the best construction materials as it is stronger than new concrete. There are only few restrictions on the type of concrete that can be used as recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) (20) .Recycling now has become more common method of growth the waste produced by demolishing or renovating the structures made of concrete kind of than transferring them by truck and leaving them in landfill. Environmental awareness and also the desire of contractors to keep construction costs as low as possible, has made concrete recycling an attractive proposal in any construction project involving concrete.Unlike most of the materials, such as, glass, bottles or metals that can be reused to produce the same material, once concrete has been made from cement, it cannot be decomposed to its initial component of sand, cement and water. However, Crushed concrete can be combined with virgin aggregate in producing concrete. (17)It is important to develop standardize guidelines to create new materials. These standards are needed for quality control of Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA), and the correct use of this recycled materials to produce new concrete.Recycling can reduce the amount o f waste concrete that must be landfilled so it carry outs landfill space by keeping the waste concrete out of landfill. In addition, it reduces the need of virgin aggregates which help to cuts the negative environmental issues of extraction process. Recycled concrete can be used as inconvenience oneself and it reduces the need for gravel mining. Another positive impact of recycling is the reduction of transportation requirements to transfer the new material to the construction sites, which in turn can reduce air and water pollution significantly and also decrease the greenhouse emission.One of the most important environmental advantages of concrete recycling rather than leaving the concrete in the landfill and buying the new material is to save up to 1,360 gallons water by recycling one ton of concrete. Using developed recycling system, to recycle the concrete waste produced from demolishing structures or roadways, can reduce t

The Life Of King Henry VIII

The Life Of fairy atomic number 1 8 fe priapic monarch hydrogen octad was born in 1491. henry was the terce child of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. He was seen as a promise young prince due to his outgoing per word of honorality, and intelligence. Traditionally the first male replacement of the royal family is successor to the thr have got, scarcely unfortunately, the first born Arthur died quite minutely at the young age of fifteen. This sudden tragedy has placed Henry as the unforeseen heir to the thr peerless. fairy Henry VIII was looked upon as the perfect young king during his early persist he had trus twainrthy an outstanding amount of schooling, and he spoke many languages. Not moreover did he fall under the category of an intellect only as an athlete as well. He was experienced and talented in jousting, hunting, tennis and archery. However, as Henry grew older history has shown scholars a change in this erstwhile beloved king. queen mole rat Henry VIII pr oved to prevail tyrannically due to his thirst for blood, power, and a male heir to succeed him. end-to-end Henrys reign, bloodshed seemed to have been a typical method for this king to exercise his problems. As soon as he succeeded his fathers position, Henry made his visage as a King who would non let anyone stand in his way by groundlessly charging his fathers two unpopular ministers Sir Richard Empson, and Edmund Dudley with Treason. The two ministers were executed in 1510. A nonher controversial and completely unnecessary stopping point ordered by Henry VIII was that of Cardinal Wolsey. Cardinal Wolsey was appointed chancellor by King Henry VIII, they were very close friends. With that being said, Henry sure Wolsey to convince the pope that he should have the divorce from his first wife Catherine of Aragon. When Wolsey failed this important task, King Henry out of anger dismissed him of his duties as Chancellor, and subsequent ordered his arrest. It had been intended th at Cardinal Wolsey be confined inside the Tower of London, but during the crossing from York to London Wolsey died. If the expiration of such a close friend, who back up this tyrannical King in whatever he did isnt bad enough, he was also responsible for the execution of two wives. Henrys gage wife was charged with treason, incest, and spellting to murder the king. It was King Henrys plan to have the crimes be such as to inspire not still revulsion for Anne but also sympathy for Henry, and it must be something that would merit divorce as well as death. (Weir 309). King Henrys fifth wife Catherine Howard was also displace to death with the charge of treason and adultery. When Catherine was arrested it should be remembered that Cranmer which was the kings adviser has no enjoin beyond his own conclusions that she had committed adultery (Weir 448). These sorts of things had become what has been described as a commonplace, and it has been suggested that this blood-thirstiness was a reflection of Henrys increasing age, power and problems. (Fraser 19)Christians by means of and throughout atomic number 63 had been part of the same Church for more than a thousand days. The pope was considered head of Christianity, this gave him tremendous power. Christians in that time period believed they can scarce get to heaven by following the rules and teachings of the Church. Martin Luther began the Protestant Reformation in Germany, his writing quickly spread to many parts of Europe King Henry VIII then countered his ideas by publishing The Defense of the heptad Sacraments. This book defended the seven sacraments which Martin Luther was so critical of. When the Pope had read the book, he gave Henry VIII a crude title Defender of the Faith. He was seen as the hero for some time, but this quickly changed. King Henry VIII decided to divorce Queen Catherine when he realized she could not explicate a son. The King decided to sway on a new Queen Anne Boleyn. He hoped Ann e would be the answer to his prayers and would give him the son that he so desperately longed for. But in divorcing Catherine, Henry had been needful to make a dissever with the Roman Catholic Church, which had gone against King Henrys wishes and refused his request for the divorce. In the process of King Henry VIII hard to reach absolute power by separating from the Church he had dramatically transformed the Church in England. King Henry VIII had hoped that by limiting the power of the pope it would make his chances of the divorce going through successful much easier. But if this did not work, the king had been prepared to relegate total control of the Church in England so he could control a divorce without the permission of the pope (Worth 64). King Henry VIII had imprisoned numerous citizens who did not support the Reformation or the kings new position as head of the Church. Some were even sent to the scaffold, including two well recognized men through out England Bishop Joh n Fisher, and Sir doubting doubting Thomas much. The death of two distinguished men such as More and Fisher sent shock waves through out England and Europe. Some of Henrys subjects who had supported the Reformation now began to wonder if the king had become a tyrant (Worth, 75).Henry VIII has had 6 marital affairs throughout his reign as king of England. This was a big scandal during the time of the Renaissance, eyesight as divorce was uncommon. King Henrys first wife was originally his blood brother Arthurs betrothed. King Henrys ultimate goal was to create a male heir to succeed him and in all the time he was married to Katherine of Aragon, only a daughter was produced and numerous stillborn sons. This infuriated Henry, and along with the acquiesce Anne Boleyn who used lust and her wit as her weapon, King Henry was driven to divorce this woman of virtue. This separation was clearly an act of selfishness on King Henrys part he drove the church into the ground for this divorce to take place, due to his lust for Anne Boleyn and obsession with creating a son. Things only got worse once the King was married to Anne Boleyn. King Henry did not expect her to be so opinionated and involved with both his political and personal affairs. macrocosm a man with a love for absolute power, this displeased him and his chase in her began to wane, and he turned his attention to Jane Seymour. While pursuing Jane Seymour Henry began to become infuriated by Anne, not only was she ill-tempered but she was not producing a son. Cromwell immediately devised a conspiracy against Anne Boleyn which would ultimately forego Henry VIII to not only divorce his new wife, but to have her killed. He and Cromwell without acknowledging the fact to each other, both knew that they were parties to a plot to do away with an innocent woman for the sake of expediency (Weir 310) Anne Boleyn was decollate on the charges of Treason, Adultery, Incest, and plotting to kill the king. King Henry mov ed on to espouse Jane Seymour, who gave him a son, she died during child birth, and conveniently pronounced her his true love and that in the event of his death he should be buried beside her. The King later decided it was time for him to marry, merely for political gain he agree to marry Anne of Cleves hoping their join would put an end to the religious problems of the German principalities (Weir 390) The King had never seen her in person, and had only received portraits which exaggerated her beauty. When they had finally met, alike an immature child he was disappointed with her physicality, and thus the marriage started off-key on a bad foot. This marriage became annulled in 1540, with the excuse that the marriage had not been consummated and she had a pre-contract with another man. Another failed marriage did not stop Henry he proceeded to become infatuated with the young Katherine Howard. Katherine Howard was eyeshot to be an empty-headed and materialistic girl, only intere sted in her own personal affairs. This surely did bother the controlling King Henry whole he asked of her was that she give him more sons (Weir 434). Marrying a girl with such microscopical experience backfired on King Henry VIII, when she committed adultery with Thomas Culpepper, a member of the court, as well as a favourite of the King. This led to her arrest, and death. Last but not least there was Catherine Parr, who was prospering enough to stay married to Henry for four years until his death in 1547. Five marriages with an exception of one were ended, some in death due to this finicky Kings lust, need for power, and ultimately to conceive a male heir.King Henry VIII had ruled England for thirty seven years as a tyrant, only looking for personal gain. We see this through various events which have marked England forever, throughout the reign of this cruel and tyrannic King. This includes the many unnecessary killings, his marriages to six wives which ended in death, the fai lure to produce a male heir, or simply because he was not attracted to her. The tercet way proving the tyrant within King Henry would be the split from the Roman Catholic Church. Henry had an obsession with power, and having the pope stand in his way to marry another woman led him to make one of the biggest changes in English History.

Regulatory Frameworks of Indias Industrial Policies

restrictive Frameworks of Indias industrial PoliciesCHAPTER 3THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK3.1 INTRODUCTION THE PARADIGM prison-breakingThe industrial constitution prosecute in India for the first four decades later in dependency was found on the collectivised school of thought that India embraced, mappingly to surrender itself from the colonial past and more than than so owing to the app bent achievements of the socialist movement in the post world-war 2 halt. so, by dint of a consequence dated April 6, 1948 the regime circumstances out the insurance to be pursued in the industrial field, wherein to inviolable continuous increase in turnout and equitable distri entirely ifion, the country opted for a centr completelyy planned festering strategy, with the evidence playing a major role. For this purpose, the National Planning representation was naturalized for planning, co-ordination, integration of national stinting bodily process and to formulate programmes of ontogeny and to secure their execution.On October 30, 1956, at the beginning of the Second Five course Plan, the disposal adopted a New industrial insurance Resolution, which reiterated the in a higher place heading and classified industries into three categories as followsSchedule A were those industries whose future tuition was the exclusive responsibility of the farming. Schedule B consisted of industries which would be progressively state-owned, wherein the state would take hatch guidance in establishing pertly beneath victoriouss and closed-door effort would be pass judgment to supplement the effort of the state. Schedule C accept either remaining industries whose promote organic evolution was left to the initiative and opening of the mysterious vault of heaven. This guide to the expansion of the state-supported bulletproofament in India, whose sh ar in GDP change magnitude from 9.91% in 1960-61 to 27.12% in 1988-89. However, the cause of disturb w as that a out digesting compute of universe orbit openings positionicularly the Non-departmental non-financial endeavors were fashioning losings and had to be subsidized.industrial chthoniantakings in the tete-a-tete field were instance to concur and regulation changeable the Industries ontogeny and Regulation (IDR) deed of conveyance (1951) and were expected to align their line of trading strategy and goals with the loose economic and social objectives of the State. The IDR vested with the g overnment incumbent powers to regulate and control living and future undertakings in a reckon of stipulate industries. A endorse was needed for establishing a saucily undertaking, taking up the invent of a new article in an animate unit, effecting squ ar(p) expansion, carrying on the business of an existing undertaking and ever-changing the lieu of an existing unit. A Letter of In ten-spott (LOI) was unwrapd for sectors/activities under dogmatic license under t he IDR Act, 1951. The LOI was converted into industrial License on ext tabularizey of contract formalities.Further, to pr level(p)t monopolies and concentration of economic power in the reach of tof payment-nosed sector, in 1969, the Monopoly and Restrictive Trade Practices Act (MRTP) was enacted. All these regulations and controls led to increase in bureaucracy, inhibiting initiative and intentness.Also, given the state of the saving with dividing lineed resources, scarce jacket crown and vast population base, the development ideology go around more or less the nonion of conservation and best utilization of neat so as to maximize trading (and non ineluctably output). Deployment of new big(p) was rigorously controlled and regulated so as to meet social necessarily and maximize enjoyment. Further, once the capital was committed to some(prenominal) body process and a legitimate employment was created, it was protected at all hail even if it was non-viable in the face of market forces.Labour intensive engineering science and employment extension were as well as the rationale behind the initial advocacy of pocketable- graduated table industry. However, later, when it was agnize that modern sm on the whole scale industry was non necessarily advertise intensive, the argument turned to encouraging the entry of new entrepreneurs in industry. A range of products were taciturn for exclusive production in the pocket-sized sector, eliminating emf competition from intermediate and large smasheds. There were no pressures on the sm all(prenominal)er houses to improve technology, update production techniques or bring low appeal originate or specialize. There was an inherent disincentive to grow beyond a certain size, if they had to continue production of a speechless product. Thus economies of scale could not be leveraged and market distortions were widespread.Until 1991, the guiding principle of Indias industrial indemnity was se lf reliance, which focused on indigenous production and decreased dependence on exotic capital and contrary technology ir wonderive of the cost and/or prime(prenominal). This did lead to the creation of a large industrial base, diversification of products, ownership and location. But in the absence of domestic competition, plow aspiration and competition of imports, industry grew with a lack of cost and quality consciousness, star to slow crop, change magnitude deficits and debt and finally the crisis in 1991 which paved the way for economic reforms in India. slightly of the comp unitynts of the reform package includeReforms in industrial Policies in terms of delicensing of nigh industries and deregulation of industries earlier monopolized by the worldly consult sectorLiberalisation of abroad art d one and only(a) sloshed decrease in tariffs and opening up of the unknown enthronisation limits in close to industries combined with measures to quarter FDI int o the countryMacroeconomic stabilization through substantial reduction in pecuniary deficits and governments draft on the private sectors savings differentwise reforms including those in taxation, financial sector, insurance sector, overt sector, and so onDuring the close decade and half, these reforms stomach reoriented India from a slow-paced, rudimentaryly directed and put acrossingly controlled economy to a strong, vibrant, fast-growing and market-friendly one. There now exists an internationally competitive private sector with varied scope for collaborations and joint ventures and a facilitating restrictive model that is evolving to match the international standards.This Chapter seeks to give an overview of the broad mannikin of regulations organisation business in India particularly in the context ofindustrial policy conflicting Investment policyAnti Trust RegulationsLabour Laws apology of mind Property Rights some other sparing Laws Procedures3.2 INDUSTRIAL POLICYThe industrial Policy Resolution 1956, substantially augmented through the Statement of Industrial Policy 1991 and subsequent announcements which great(p)ized the economy endures the basic framework for the overall industrial policy of the government activity of India.3.2.1 Industrial LicensingThe commandment of checking an industrial license for manufacturing has been abolished for all projects notwithstanding for a short list of industries connected with shelter and strategical concerns ( speechless for public sector), social reasons, hazardous chemicals and overriding environmental concerns. The list of items requiring imperative licensing is reviewed on an ongoing basis. The award of LOI has been dispensed with for all sectors/activities still for items uncommunicative for SSI sector and an Industrial License is now coming backd without going through the stage of LOI. The undermentioned industries require compulsory license-Alcoholics drinksCig bettes and tobacco productsElectronic, aerospace and defense equipmentExplosives raving mad chemicals much(prenominal) as hydrocyanic acid, phosgene, isocynates and di-isocynates of hydro carbon and derivatives, and so onNon-small-scale industrial units or units in which inappropriate beauteousness is more than 24% require license to diligence items reserved from small scale sector. All separate industries be liberate from licensing and no industrial applause is required. Entrepreneurs ar only required to lodge an Industrial Entrepreneurs Memorandum (IEM) with the Secretariat for Industrial Assistance (SIA), providing selective information on new projects and substantial expansions.There be however, certain locational restrictions in metropolitan areas. No industrial boon is required from the government for locations outdoor(a) 25 kms of the fringe of cities having a population of more than one million except for those industries where industrial licensing is compulsory. Non -polluting industries much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as electronics, computer software and printing nookie be located within 25 kms of the periphery of cities with more than one million population. Permission to some other industries is apt(p) in much(prenominal) locations only if they are located in an industrial area so designated former to 1991. regularize and Land Use Regulations as well as environmental Legislations do to be followed.Appropriate incentives and coronation capitals in enable infrastructure are provided to supercharge dispersal of industry particularly to the rural and backward areas and to reduce congestion in cities. Recently, the Government sanction a package of pecuniary incentives and other concessions for the North easternmost Region namely the North East Industrial and Investment Promotion Policy (NEIIPP), 2007, effective from 1.4.2007.Also, under the broad framework of the national industrial policy, different Indian S tates announce their single Industrial Policies periodically, which highlight the areas in which the State would focus on and provide incentives to attract investment, the assorted sector location particular schemes offered to private investors, the plans for development of enabling infrastructure, opportunities for public-private-partnership, etc.3.2.2 Policies for PrivatisationThe post 1991 liberalisation process brought with it deregulation of trade and industry, raze of bureaucratic controls, technological development and financial sector reforms. Privatising some of the activities which even so were the exclusive domain of public sector too became part of this initiative to boost enterprisingness and professional management of resources to enhance economic growth and competitiveness. Revolutionary policy measures were acceptn to encourage private participation in sectors like telecom, information broadcasting, power, ports, airports, banking, etc. Over the years, th e government has reduced the list of industries reserved for the public sector to the two which are deemed signifi brush offt from security and strategic perspective, viz., Atomic energy and Railways.However, in the last few years the railways announce opening up of its containerized operations to other private and public sector companies, thereby ending the monopoly enjoyed by the Container Corporation of India (CONCOR). Interested companies could benefit of the route-specific or all-India permission by paying a enrolment fee which is binding for an operation period of 20 years (further extendable by 10 years). There is freedom to decide the tariffs to be charged to the customers for versatile serve and similarly the exit norms involve transfer of the operational writes to another(prenominal) worthy operator with the railway encomium.3.2.3 Policies for undersize Scale SectorThe render in the Industrial Policy Statement of 1991 and the subsequent policies are aimed at l iving the Small Scale Industries (SSI) sector though various measures and packages counseling not only on policy of reservation but in both field on price and purchase preference policy for marketing SSI products, reference point and fiscal support to SSIs, support for cluster based development, technology upgradation, etc.The IDR Act 1951 provided for the reservation of items for exclusive manufacture in SSI sector primarily with the objectives of increasing production of consumer goods in the small scale sector and broadening of employment opportunities. In 1967, 47 items were reserved for exclusive manufacture in the small scale sector. This number was increased to 836 items in 1989. However, since 1997, a large number of items were dereserved from the list in the phased manner. As of March 2007, only 114 items are reserved for exclusive manufacture in the small scale sector.In extension to the policy of reservation, the Government has initiated various measures offering support for clop based Development, Technologies and Quality Upgradation, Marketing, Entrepreneurial and Managerial Development and Schemes for Empowerment of Women go Enterprises.Further, with a view to facilitate the development of little, small and median(a) enterprises (MSME), the Micro, Small and median(a) Enterprises Act 2006, was implemented. The Act provides the new classification of each course of instruction of enterprises. As per the Act, MSME are defined as followsin the slip of paper of the enterprise move in the manufacture or production of goods pertaining to any industry specify in the first schedule to the IDR Act 1951 a micro enterprise is the one where the investment in plant and machinery does not run xx flipper hundred thousand rupees.a small enterprise is one where the investment in plant and machinery is more than twenty quint lakh rupees but does not exceed five crore rupees ora medium enterprise is one in which the investment in plant and mac hinery is more than five crore rupees but does not exceed ten crore rupeesin the case of enterprises pursue in providing or rendering of operates a micro enterprise is one where the investment in equipment does not exceed ten lakh rupeesa small enterprise is one in which the investment in equipment is more than ten lakh rupees but does not exceed two crore rupees ora medium enterprise is where the investment in equipment is more than two crore rupees but does not exceed five crore rupeesIn February 2007, the Government announced a package for promotion of the SSI sector as follows ascribe Support The package aims at increasing the number of beneficiaries of the character provided by the Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) by 50 lakhs, over five years beginning from 2006-07. For this purpose, the Government has provided assignment to SIDBI to augment its Portfolio insecurity pedigree. Besides, in an attempt to increase demand-based small loanwords to micro enterp rise, the Government announced a provision of grant to SIDBI to create a Risk cracking Fund (as a pilot scheme in 2006-07). The eligible loan limit under the Credit Guarantee Fund Scheme has been raised(a) to Rs. 50 lakh. The credit guarantee spinning top has also been raised from 75% to 80% for micro enterprises for loans upto Rs. 5 lakhs.Fiscal support The Government has increased the universal Excise Exemption (GEE) limit from Rs. century lakh to Rs. cl lakhs since April 2007. It further proposes to examine the eligibility of extending the time limit for payment of excise province by micro and small enterprises and extending the GEE benefits to small enterprises on their start to medium enterprises for a special period.3.3 FOREIGN INVESTMENT POLICYIn deferred payment of the importance of of hostile direct investment as an putz of technology transfer, augmentation of orthogonal exchange reserves and globalization of the Indian economy, the Government of India revamped i ts abroad investment policy as part of the reform process.3.3.1 unknown discipline Investment overseas Direct Investment (FDI) regime in India was more and more liberalized during 1990s (more particularly post 1996) and today India has the most liberal and female genitaliadid policies on FDI among the emerging economies, with restrictions on foreign investments being take away and affairs simplified. virtually of the prominent features of the FDI policy in India are elucidated belowThe acclamation appliance for FDI has a two tier system.Under the involuntary acclamation route, companies can bare allots and receive inward put backtals for investment in areas correct and upto the limits of foreign equity prescribed, with a reporting requirement, within a period of 30 geezerhood. In these sectors, investment could be made without precedent commendation of the central government.Although, in case of the machinelike route, it is no longer infallible to obtain the in principle permission from Reserve bank of India ( rbi) in the beginning receiving foreign investment or for topic shares to foreign investors, the union, would, however, have to ground a report to the RBI within 30 years later onward issue of shares to the foreign investors.Proposals for investment in public sector units and also for exceptional Economic Zones (SEZs) / Export Oriented Units (EOUs)/ Export Processing Zones (EPZs) amaze for automatic compliment worst to satisfaction of certain prescribed sector specific parameters.FDI upto 100% is permitted under the automatic route for range up Industrial parking lots. Proposals for FDI/NRI investment in Electronic Hardware Technology Park (EHTP) and software system Technology Park (STP) Units are eligible for approval under the automatic route, except for those requiring prior approval of the Central Government (as discussed below).FDI in sectors that are not covered under the automatic route requires prior approv al of the Central Government. Activities/sectors require prior approval of the Government for FDI in the following circumstances-Activities/items that require an industrial licenseProposals in which the foreign confederate has an existing financial/ practiced collaboration in India in the alike field (except in IT and mining sector)All proposals falling immaterial notified sectoral policy/CAPSProposals in which more than 24% foreign equity is proposed to be inducted for manufacture of items reserved for the Small Scale SectorThe approval is grant by immaterial Investment Promotion circuit card (FIPB), which is a particularly appoint board set up for the purpose, chaired by the Secretary, Union Ministry of Finance.Proposals for FDI could be direct to the FIPB Unit, part of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance or through any of Indias diplomatical missions abroad. FIPB has the flexibility to examine all proposals in totality, free from predetermined parameters.Recommendati ons of FIPB regarding all proposals falling in the non-automatic route and involving an investment of Rs.6 gazillion or less are considered and approve by the Finance Minister. Projects with investment great than this value are submitted by the FIPB to the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs for approval.Necessary regulatory approvals from the state governments and local regime for facial expression of building, water, environmental clearance, etc. need to be acquired after the grant of approval for FDI by FIPB or for the sectors falling under automatic route. bingle window clearance facilities and investor escort work are available in various states to simplify the approval process for new ventures.Decisions on all foreign investments are usually taken within 30 days of submitting the application.In cases where original investment is made in convertible foreign exchange, free repatriation of capital investment and profits thereon is permitted.Sectors prohibited for FDI includeretail trading (except Single Brand Product retailing)Atomic power drafting BusinessGambling and Betting3.3.1.1 Investment in SEZsIn regularise to enhance competitiveness of Indian exports and attract investment in these sectors, Indias irrelevant Trade Policy promotes the setting up of SEZs and thus provides for a hassle-free environment with world-class institutional and physical infrastructure and supporting logistics. Some of the existing EPZs/FTZs have also been converted into SEZs. All the State Governments have been well-advised to give priority to waste and barren land for achievement purposes. jibe to the total Waste Land area surveyed by the Ministry of Forest, 5,52,692.26 hectares was available for much(prenominal)(prenominal) purpose.FDI upto 100% is permitted under the automatic route for setting up of SEZ. Proposals not covered under automatic route require approval from FIPB. The policy provides for setting up of SEZ in the public, private or joint secto rs or by state governments. These could be product specific or multi-product SEZs. Designated nontaxable enclaves are treated as foreign territory for trade operations and duties and tariffs, and duty-free goods need to be utilised within the approved period. The permitted activities cover an array of manufacturing and services like production, processing, assembling, reconditioning, re-engineering, packaging, trading, etc.Proposals for setting up units in SEZ, other than those requiring industrial license are approved by the Development Commissioner (DC). The approval for those requiring industrial license is allow by the DC after receiving clearance from the Board of Approval. The Letter of Permission ( nip)/Letter of target (LOI) issued by the DC is construed as a license for all purposes, including procurement of tender material and consumables either at a time or through a canalising agency. The LOP/LOI needs to subtend the items of manufacture/service activity, yearly c apacity, communicate annual export for the first year in dollar terms, exculpate conflicting metamorphose Earnings (NFE), limitations, if any, regarding sale of finished goods, by products and rejects in the DTA and such other matter as whitethorn be necessary and also impose such conditions as may be required. gibe to the policy, SEZ units have to be positive net foreign exchange earners and the carrying into action of these units would be monitored by a unit approval committee consisting of the DC and the tradition Authority.3.3.2 Entry Options for impertinent InvestorsA foreign fraternity has the option to set up business operations in India as an structured Entity or as an Un embodied Entity.An Incorporated Entity would be a guild registered under Companies Act, 1956, through joint ventures or wholly owned subsidiaries. Foreign equity in such Indian companies can be up to 100% depending on the requirements of the investor, subject to any equity caps prescribed in res pect of area of activities under the FDI policy. Funding could be via equity, debt (both foreign and local) and inside accruals.For registration and internalisation, an application has to be filed with the Registrar of Companies (ROC). Once a caller-out has been punctually registered and incorporated as an Indian play along, it is subject to Indian laws and regulations as applicable to other domestic Indian companies. Companies in India can be incorporated as a private beau monde or a public company.In comparison with branch and familiarity authorizations (discussed subsequently), a supplementary company provides maximum flexibility for conducting business in India. However, the exit procedure norms of such companies are relatively more cumbersome.An Unincorporated Entity could be data link situation/Representative moorage or Project big businessman or kickoff patch. such(prenominal) state of affairss can undertake activities permitted under the Foreign counterchang e heed (Establishment in India of commencement Office of other place of business) Regulations, 2000. They are also governed by the Companies Act 1956, which contains special provisions for regulating such entities.3.3.2.1 connexion Office/Representative OfficeThe role of a function tycoon is primarily toCollect information about the market deal information about the company and its products to prospective Indian customersPromote exports/imports from/to India facilitate proficient collaboration between fire company and companies in IndiaA liaison office cannot undertake any commercial activity directly or indirectly and cannot, therefore, earn any income in India. Approval for establishing a liaison office in India is granted by the RBI.3.3.2.2 Project OfficeForeign Companies planning to execute specific projects in India can set up temporary project/site offices in India. RBI has granted world(a) permission to foreign entities to establish Project Offices subject to specifi ed conditions. Such offices cannot undertake or carry on any activity other than the activity relating and incidental to execution of the project. Project Offices may remit outdoor(a) India the surplus of the project on its completion, general permission for which has been granted by the RBI.Since a Project Office is an extension of the foreign incorporation in India, it is taxed at the rate applicable to foreign corporations.3.3.2.3 carve up OfficeForeign companies engaged in manufacturing and trading activities abroad are allowed to set up Branch Offices in India for the following purposes Export/Import of goods interlingual rendition professional or consultancy servicesCarrying out research work, in which the enkindle company is engaged.Promoting technical or financial collaborations between Indian companies and parent or overseas group companyRepresenting the parent company in India and performing as buying/ selling agents in India reading services in Information Technology a nd development of software in IndiaRendering technical support to the products supplied by the parent/ group companiesForeign airway/ tape transport companyBranch Offices established with the approval of RBI, are allowed to remit outdoor(a) India profit of the branch net of applicable taxes (which are at judge applicable to foreign companies) however, subject to RBI guidelines. Permission for setting up branch offices is granted by the RBI.Branch Offices could also be on stand completely basis in SEZ. Such Branch Offices would be isolated and restricted to the SEZ alone and no business activity/ motion would be allowed outside the SEZs in India, which include branches/subsidiaries of its parent office in India. No approval shall be necessary from RBI for a company to establish a branch/unit in SEZs to undertake manufacturing and service activities, subject to the conditions thatthey function in sectors in which 100% FDI is permittedthey agree with part XI of the Companys Act (Section 592 to 602)function on a stand alone basisin the event of winding up of business and for remit of winding-up proceeds, the branch should approach an authorized dealer in foreign exchange in the with documents required as per FEMA.A Branch Office provides the benefit of ease in operations and an uncomplicated closure. However, since the operations are rigorously regulated by exchange control guidelines, a Branch may not provide a foreign corporation with most optimum structure for its expansion/diversification plans.Box 3.1Investment in a firm or a Proprietary Concern by NRIsA Non-Resident Indian or a Person of Indian root (PIO) house physician outside India may invest by way of component to the capital of a firm or a proprietary concern in India on non-repatriation basis providedi) Amount is invested by inward remission or out of NRE/FCNR/NRO account maintained with Authorised Dealers of RBI (AD)ii) The firm or proprietary concern is not engaged in any inelegant/plan tation or real estate business i.e. transaction in land and immovable property with a view to earning profit or earning income there from.iii) Amount invested shall not be eligible for repatriation outside India.NRIs/PIO may invest in sole proprietorship concerns/ partnership firms with repatriation benefits with the approval of Department of Economic Affairs, Government of India /RBI.Box 3.2Investment in a firm or a Proprietary Concern by Other than NRIsNo soul resident outside India other than NRIs/PIO shall make any investment by way of contribution to the capital of a firm or a proprietorship concern or any tie-in of persons in India. The RBI may, on an application made to it, permit a person resident outside India to make such investment subject to such terms and conditions as may be considered necessary.3.3.3 Financing Options for CorporatesCompanies registered in India can raise finances through apportion Capital or Debentures and Borrowings.3.3.3.1 Share CapitalThe Compan ies Act, 1956 allows for two kinds of share capital, viz., Preference share capital (preferred stock) and impartiality share capital (with/without voting rights). Apart from this, private companies which are not subsidiaries of public company have the option of raising funds through Venture Capital.The issue of shares to the public is governed by the guidelines issued by the Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI) the body that regulates and oversees the functioning of Indian Stock markets and the RBI.A company issuing shares or debentures has to comply with SEBI disclosure requirements with regards to its prospectus. The prospectus has to be approved by the stock exchange and scrutinized by SEBI and then filed with the Registrar of Companies.Indian companies having foreign investment approval through FIPB route do not require any further clearance from RBI for receiving inward remittance and issue of shares to the foreign investors. The companies are required to notify the con cerned regional office of the RBI of receipt of inward remittances within 30 days of such receipt and within 30 days of issue of shares to the foreign investors or NRIs.Equity participation by international financial institutions such as ADB, IFC, CDC, DEG, etc., in domestic companies is permitted through automatic route, subject to SEBI/RBI regulations and sector specific cap on FDI.In all other cases a company may issue shares as per the RBI regulations. Other relevant guidelines of SEBI and RBI, including the SEBI (Substantial Acquisition of Shares and Takeovers) Regulations, 1997, wherever applicable, would need to be followed.The Companies Act does not specify the nominal value of shares. According to RBI/SEBI Guidelines, in case of listed companies, the issue price shall be either at the aveRegulatory Frameworks of Indias Industrial PoliciesRegulatory Frameworks of Indias Industrial PoliciesCHAPTER 3THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK3.1 INTRODUCTION THE PARADIGM SHIFTThe industrial poli cy pursued in India for the first four decades after independence was based on the socialist school of thought that India embraced, partly to alienate itself from the colonial past and more so owing to the obvious achievements of the socialist movement in the post world-war two period. Thus, through a Resolution dated April 6, 1948 the government set out the policy to be pursued in the Industrial field, wherein to secure continuous increase in production and equitable distribution, the country opted for a centrally planned development strategy, with the state playing a major role. For this purpose, the National Planning Commission was established for planning, co-ordination, integration of national economic activity and to formulate programmes of development and to secure their execution.On October 30, 1956, at the beginning of the Second Five Year Plan, the Government adopted a New Industrial Policy Resolution, which reiterated the above objective and classified industries into th ree categories as followsSchedule A were those industries whose future development was the exclusive responsibility of the state. Schedule B consisted of industries which would be progressively state-owned, wherein the state would take initiative in establishing new undertakings and private enterprise would be expected to supplement the effort of the state. Schedule C included all remaining industries whose further development was left to the initiative and enterprise of the private sector. This led to the expansion of the public sector in India, whose share in GDP increased from 9.91% in 1960-61 to 27.12% in 1988-89. However, the cause of concern was that a large number of public sector enterprises particularly the Non-departmental non-financial enterprises were making losses and had to be subsidized.Industrial undertakings in the private sector were subject to control and regulation like the Industries Development and Regulation (IDR) Act (1951) and were expected to align their b usiness strategy and goals with the broad economic and social objectives of the State. The IDR vested with the government necessary powers to regulate and control existing and future undertakings in a number of specified industries. A license was necessary for establishing a new undertaking, taking up the manufacture of a new article in an existing unit, effecting substantial expansion, carrying on the business of an existing undertaking and changing the location of an existing unit. A Letter of Intent (LOI) was issued for sectors/activities under compulsory license under the IDR Act, 1951. The LOI was converted into Industrial License on completion of specified formalities.Further, to prevent monopolies and concentration of economic power in the hands of private sector, in 1969, the Monopoly and Restrictive Trade Practices Act (MRTP) was enacted. All these regulations and controls led to increase in bureaucracy, inhibiting enterprise and industry.Also, given the state of the econom y with limited resources, scarce capital and vast population base, the development ideology revolved around the notion of conservation and optimum utilization of capital so as to maximize employment (and not necessarily output). Deployment of new capital was strictly controlled and regulated so as to meet social needs and maximize employment. Further, once the capital was committed to any activity and a certain employment was created, it was protected at any cost even if it was non-viable in the face of market forces.Labour intensive technology and employment generation were also the rationale behind the initial advocacy of small-scale industry. However, later, when it was realized that modern small scale industry was not necessarily labour intensive, the argument turned to encouraging the entry of new entrepreneurs in industry. A range of products were reserved for exclusive production in the small-scale sector, eliminating potential competition from medium and large firms. There were no pressures on the smaller firms to improve technology, update production techniques or reduce cost modernize or specialize. There was an inherent disincentive to grow beyond a certain size, if they had to continue production of a reserved product. Thus economies of scale could not be leveraged and market distortions were widespread.Until 1991, the guiding principle of Indias industrial policy was self reliance, which focused on indigenous production and reduced dependence on foreign capital and foreign technology disregardless of the cost and/or quality. This did lead to the creation of a large industrial base, diversification of products, ownership and location. But in the absence of domestic competition, export rivalry and competition of imports, industry grew with a lack of cost and quality consciousness, leading to slow growth, increasing deficits and debt and finally the crisis in 1991 which paved the way for economic reforms in India. Some of the components of the ref orm package includeReforms in Industrial Policies in terms of delicensing of most industries and deregulation of industries earlier monopolized by the public sectorLiberalisation of foreign trade through steady reduction in tariffs and freeing up of the foreign investment limits in most industries combined with measures to attract FDI into the countryMacroeconomic stabilization through substantial reduction in fiscal deficits and governments draft on the private sectors savingsOther reforms including those in taxation, financial sector, insurance sector, public sector, etc.During the last decade and half, these reforms have reoriented India from a slow-paced, centrally directed and highly controlled economy to a strong, vibrant, fast-growing and market-friendly one. There now exists an internationally competitive private sector with varied scope for collaborations and joint ventures and a facilitating regulatory framework that is evolving to match the international standards.This Ch apter seeks to give an overview of the broad framework of regulations governing business in India particularly in the context ofIndustrial PolicyForeign Investment PolicyAnti Trust RegulationsLabour LawsProtection of Intellectual Property RightsOther Economic Laws Procedures3.2 INDUSTRIAL POLICYThe Industrial Policy Resolution 1956, substantially augmented through the Statement of Industrial Policy 1991 and subsequent announcements which liberalized the economy provides the basic framework for the overall industrial policy of the Government of India.3.2.1 Industrial LicensingThe requirement of obtaining an industrial license for manufacturing has been abolished for all projects except for a short list of industries connected with security and strategic concerns (reserved for public sector), social reasons, hazardous chemicals and overriding environmental concerns. The list of items requiring compulsory licensing is reviewed on an ongoing basis. The stage of LOI has been dispensed with for all sectors/activities except for items reserved for SSI sector and an Industrial License is now issued without going through the stage of LOI. The following industries require compulsory license-Alcoholics drinksCigarettes and tobacco productsElectronic, aerospace and defense equipmentExplosivesHazardous chemicals such as hydrocyanic acid, phosgene, isocynates and di-isocynates of hydro carbon and derivatives, etc.Non-small-scale industrial units or units in which foreign equity is more than 24% require license to manufacture items reserved from small scale sector. All other industries are exempt from licensing and no industrial approval is required. Entrepreneurs are only required to file an Industrial Entrepreneurs Memorandum (IEM) with the Secretariat for Industrial Assistance (SIA), providing information on new projects and substantial expansions.There are however, certain locational restrictions in metropolitan areas. No industrial approval is required from the Gover nment for locations outside 25 kms of the periphery of cities having a population of more than one million except for those industries where industrial licensing is compulsory. Non-polluting industries such as electronics, computer software and printing can be located within 25 kms of the periphery of cities with more than one million population. Permission to other industries is granted in such locations only if they are located in an industrial area so designated prior to 1991. Zoning and Land Use Regulations as well as Environmental Legislations have to be followed.Appropriate incentives and investments in enabling infrastructure are provided to promote dispersal of industry particularly to the rural and backward areas and to reduce congestion in cities. Recently, the Government approved a package of fiscal incentives and other concessions for the North East Region namely the North East Industrial and Investment Promotion Policy (NEIIPP), 2007, effective from 1.4.2007.Also, under the broad framework of the national industrial policy, different Indian States announce their respective Industrial Policies periodically, which highlight the areas in which the State would focus on and provide incentives to attract investment, the various sector location specific schemes offered to private investors, the plans for development of enabling infrastructure, opportunities for public-private-partnership, etc.3.2.2 Policies for PrivatisationThe post 1991 liberalisation process brought with it deregulation of trade and industry, dismantling of bureaucratic controls, technological development and financial sector reforms. Privatising some of the activities which heretofore were the exclusive domain of public sector also became part of this initiative to boost enterprise and professional management of resources to enhance economic growth and competitiveness. Revolutionary policy measures were undertaken to encourage private participation in sectors like telecom, informatio n broadcasting, power, ports, airports, banking, etc. Over the years, the government has reduced the number of industries reserved for the public sector to the two which are deemed significant from security and strategic perspective, viz., Atomic energy and Railways.However, in the last few years the railways announced opening up of its containerized operations to other private and public sector companies, thereby ending the monopoly enjoyed by the Container Corporation of India (CONCOR). Interested companies could avail of the route-specific or all-India permission by paying a registration fee which is valid for an operation period of 20 years (further extendable by 10 years). There is freedom to decide the tariffs to be charged to the customers for various services and also the exit norms involve transfer of the operational writes to another eligible operator with the railway approval.3.2.3 Policies for Small Scale SectorThe provisions in the Industrial Policy Statement of 1991 a nd the subsequent policies are aimed at supporting the Small Scale Industries (SSI) sector though various measures and packages focusing not only on policy of reservation but also on price and purchase preference policy for marketing SSI products, credit and fiscal support to SSIs, support for cluster based development, technology upgradation, etc.The IDR Act 1951 provided for the reservation of items for exclusive manufacture in SSI sector primarily with the objectives of increasing production of consumer goods in the small scale sector and widening of employment opportunities. In 1967, 47 items were reserved for exclusive manufacture in the small scale sector. This number was increased to 836 items in 1989. However, since 1997, a large number of items were dereserved from the list in the phased manner. As of March 2007, only 114 items are reserved for exclusive manufacture in the small scale sector.In addition to the policy of reservation, the Government has initiated various me asures offering support for Cluster based Development, Technologies and Quality Upgradation, Marketing, Entrepreneurial and Managerial Development and Schemes for Empowerment of Women Owned Enterprises.Further, with a view to facilitate the development of micro, small and medium enterprises (MSME), the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Act 2006, was implemented. The Act provides the new classification of each category of enterprises. As per the Act, MSME are defined as followsin the case of the enterprise engaged in the manufacture or production of goods pertaining to any industry specified in the first schedule to the IDR Act 1951 a micro enterprise is the one where the investment in plant and machinery does not exceed twenty five lakh rupees.a small enterprise is one where the investment in plant and machinery is more than twenty five lakh rupees but does not exceed five crore rupees ora medium enterprise is one in which the investment in plant and machinery is more than five cr ore rupees but does not exceed ten crore rupeesin the case of enterprises engaged in providing or rendering of services a micro enterprise is one where the investment in equipment does not exceed ten lakh rupeesa small enterprise is one in which the investment in equipment is more than ten lakh rupees but does not exceed two crore rupees ora medium enterprise is where the investment in equipment is more than two crore rupees but does not exceed five crore rupeesIn February 2007, the Government announced a package for promotion of the SSI sector as followsCredit Support The package aims at increasing the number of beneficiaries of the credit provided by the Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) by 50 lakhs, over five years beginning from 2006-07. For this purpose, the Government has provided grant to SIDBI to augment its Portfolio Risk Fund. Besides, in an attempt to increase demand-based small loans to micro enterprise, the Government announced a provision of grant to S IDBI to create a Risk Capital Fund (as a pilot scheme in 2006-07). The eligible loan limit under the Credit Guarantee Fund Scheme has been raised to Rs. 50 lakh. The credit guarantee cover has also been raised from 75% to 80% for micro enterprises for loans upto Rs. 5 lakhs.Fiscal support The Government has increased the General Excise Exemption (GEE) limit from Rs. 100 lakh to Rs. 150 lakhs since April 2007. It further proposes to examine the eligibility of extending the time limit for payment of excise duty by micro and small enterprises and extending the GEE benefits to small enterprises on their graduation to medium enterprises for a limited period.3.3 FOREIGN INVESTMENT POLICYIn recognition of the importance of of foreign direct investment as an instrument of technology transfer, augmentation of foreign exchange reserves and globalization of the Indian economy, the Government of India revamped its foreign investment policy as part of the reform process.3.3.1 Foreign Direct Inve stmentForeign Direct Investment (FDI) regime in India was increasingly liberalized during 1990s (more particularly post 1996) and today India has the most liberal and transparent policies on FDI among the emerging economies, with restrictions on foreign investments being removed and procedures simplified. Some of the prominent features of the FDI policy in India are elucidated belowThe approval mechanism for FDI has a two tier system.Under the automatic approval route, companies can issue shares and receive inward remittances for investment in areas identified and upto the limits of foreign equity prescribed, with a reporting requirement, within a period of 30 days. In these sectors, investment could be made without prior approval of the central government.Although, in case of the automatic route, it is no longer necessary to obtain the in principle permission from Reserve bank of India (RBI) before receiving overseas investment or for issuing shares to foreign investors, the compan y, would, however, have to make a report to the RBI within 30 days after issue of shares to the foreign investors.Proposals for investment in public sector units and also for Special Economic Zones (SEZs) / Export Oriented Units (EOUs)/ Export Processing Zones (EPZs) qualify for automatic approval subject to satisfaction of certain prescribed sector specific parameters.FDI upto 100% is permitted under the automatic route for setting up Industrial Parks. Proposals for FDI/NRI investment in Electronic Hardware Technology Park (EHTP) and Software Technology Park (STP) Units are eligible for approval under the automatic route, except for those requiring prior approval of the Central Government (as discussed below).FDI in sectors that are not covered under the automatic route requires prior approval of the Central Government. Activities/sectors require prior approval of the Government for FDI in the following circumstances-Activities/items that require an industrial licenseProposals in w hich the foreign collaborator has an existing financial/technical collaboration in India in the same field (except in IT and mining sector)All proposals falling outside notified sectoral policy/CAPSProposals in which more than 24% foreign equity is proposed to be inducted for manufacture of items reserved for the Small Scale SectorThe approval is granted by Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB), which is a specially empowered board set up for the purpose, chaired by the Secretary, Union Ministry of Finance.Proposals for FDI could be sent to the FIPB Unit, Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance or through any of Indias diplomatic missions abroad. FIPB has the flexibility to examine all proposals in totality, free from predetermined parameters.Recommendations of FIPB regarding all proposals falling in the non-automatic route and involving an investment of Rs.6 billion or less are considered and approved by the Finance Minister. Projects with investment greater than th is value are submitted by the FIPB to the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs for approval.Necessary regulatory approvals from the state governments and local authorities for construction of building, water, environmental clearance, etc. need to be acquired after the grant of approval for FDI by FIPB or for the sectors falling under automatic route. Single window clearance facilities and investor escort services are available in various states to simplify the approval process for new ventures.Decisions on all foreign investments are usually taken within 30 days of submitting the application.In cases where original investment is made in convertible foreign exchange, free repatriation of capital investment and profits thereon is permitted.Sectors prohibited for FDI includeRetail trading (except Single Brand Product retailing)Atomic EnergyLottery BusinessGambling and Betting3.3.1.1 Investment in SEZsIn order to enhance competitiveness of Indian exports and attract investment in these sectors, Indias Foreign Trade Policy promotes the setting up of SEZs and thus provides for a hassle-free environment with world-class institutional and physical infrastructure and supporting logistics. Some of the existing EPZs/FTZs have also been converted into SEZs. All the State Governments have been advised to give priority to waste and barren land for acquisition purposes. According to the total Waste Land area surveyed by the Ministry of Forest, 5,52,692.26 hectares was available for such purpose.FDI upto 100% is permitted under the automatic route for setting up of SEZ. Proposals not covered under automatic route require approval from FIPB. The policy provides for setting up of SEZ in the public, private or joint sectors or by state governments. These could be product specific or multi-product SEZs. Designated duty-free enclaves are treated as foreign territory for trade operations and duties and tariffs, and duty-free goods need to be utilised within the approved period. Th e permitted activities cover an array of manufacturing and services like production, processing, assembling, reconditioning, re-engineering, packaging, trading, etc.Proposals for setting up units in SEZ, other than those requiring industrial license are approved by the Development Commissioner (DC). The approval for those requiring industrial license is granted by the DC after receiving clearance from the Board of Approval. The Letter of Permission (LOP)/Letter of Intent (LOI) issued by the DC is construed as a license for all purposes, including procurement of raw material and consumables either directly or through a canalising agency. The LOP/LOI needs to specify the items of manufacture/service activity, annual capacity, projected annual export for the first year in dollar terms, Net Foreign Exchange Earnings (NFE), limitations, if any, regarding sale of finished goods, by products and rejects in the DTA and such other matter as may be necessary and also impose such conditions as may be required.According to the policy, SEZ units have to be positive net foreign exchange earners and the performance of these units would be monitored by a unit approval committee consisting of the DC and the Customs Authority.3.3.2 Entry Options for Foreign InvestorsA foreign company has the option to set up business operations in India as an Incorporated Entity or as an Unincorporated Entity.An Incorporated Entity would be a company registered under Companies Act, 1956, through joint ventures or wholly owned subsidiaries. Foreign equity in such Indian companies can be up to 100% depending on the requirements of the investor, subject to any equity caps prescribed in respect of area of activities under the FDI policy. Funding could be via equity, debt (both foreign and local) and internal accruals.For registration and incorporation, an application has to be filed with the Registrar of Companies (ROC). Once a company has been duly registered and incorporated as an Indian company, it is subject to Indian laws and regulations as applicable to other domestic Indian companies. Companies in India can be incorporated as a private company or a public company.In comparison with branch and liaison offices (discussed subsequently), a subsidiary company provides maximum flexibility for conducting business in India. However, the exit procedure norms of such companies are relatively more cumbersome.An Unincorporated Entity could be Liaison Office/Representative Office or Project Office or Branch Office. Such offices can undertake activities permitted under the Foreign Exchange Management (Establishment in India of Branch Office of other place of business) Regulations, 2000. They are also governed by the Companies Act 1956, which contains special provisions for regulating such entities.3.3.2.1 Liaison Office/Representative OfficeThe role of a liaison office is primarily toCollect information about the marketDisseminate information about the company and its products to pr ospective Indian customersPromote exports/imports from/to IndiaFacilitate technical collaboration between parent company and companies in IndiaA liaison office cannot undertake any commercial activity directly or indirectly and cannot, therefore, earn any income in India. Approval for establishing a liaison office in India is granted by the RBI.3.3.2.2 Project OfficeForeign Companies planning to execute specific projects in India can set up temporary project/site offices in India. RBI has granted general permission to foreign entities to establish Project Offices subject to specified conditions. Such offices cannot undertake or carry on any activity other than the activity relating and incidental to execution of the project. Project Offices may remit outside India the surplus of the project on its completion, general permission for which has been granted by the RBI.Since a Project Office is an extension of the foreign incorporation in India, it is taxed at the rate applicable to for eign corporations.3.3.2.3 Branch OfficeForeign companies engaged in manufacturing and trading activities abroad are allowed to set up Branch Offices in India for the following purposes Export/Import of goodsRendering professional or consultancy servicesCarrying out research work, in which the parent company is engaged.Promoting technical or financial collaborations between Indian companies and parent or overseas group companyRepresenting the parent company in India and acting as buying/ selling agents in IndiaRendering services in Information Technology and development of software in IndiaRendering technical support to the products supplied by the parent/ group companiesForeign airline/shipping companyBranch Offices established with the approval of RBI, are allowed to remit outside India profit of the branch net of applicable taxes (which are at rates applicable to foreign companies) however, subject to RBI guidelines. Permission for setting up branch offices is granted by the RBI .Branch Offices could also be on stand alone basis in SEZ. Such Branch Offices would be isolated and restricted to the SEZ alone and no business activity/transaction would be allowed outside the SEZs in India, which include branches/subsidiaries of its parent office in India. No approval shall be necessary from RBI for a company to establish a branch/unit in SEZs to undertake manufacturing and service activities, subject to the conditions thatthey function in sectors in which 100% FDI is permittedthey comply with part XI of the Companys Act (Section 592 to 602)function on a stand alone basisin the event of winding up of business and for remittance of winding-up proceeds, the branch should approach an authorized dealer in foreign exchange in the with documents required as per FEMA.A Branch Office provides the advantage of ease in operations and an uncomplicated closure. However, since the operations are strictly regulated by exchange control guidelines, a Branch may not provide a for eign corporation with most optimum structure for its expansion/diversification plans.Box 3.1Investment in a firm or a Proprietary Concern by NRIsA Non-Resident Indian or a Person of Indian Origin (PIO) resident outside India may invest by way of contribution to the capital of a firm or a proprietary concern in India on non-repatriation basis providedi) Amount is invested by inward remittance or out of NRE/FCNR/NRO account maintained with Authorised Dealers of RBI (AD)ii) The firm or proprietary concern is not engaged in any agricultural/plantation or real estate business i.e. dealing in land and immovable property with a view to earning profit or earning income there from.iii) Amount invested shall not be eligible for repatriation outside India.NRIs/PIO may invest in sole proprietorship concerns/ partnership firms with repatriation benefits with the approval of Department of Economic Affairs, Government of India /RBI.Box 3.2Investment in a firm or a Proprietary Concern by Other than NRIsNo person resident outside India other than NRIs/PIO shall make any investment by way of contribution to the capital of a firm or a proprietorship concern or any association of persons in India. The RBI may, on an application made to it, permit a person resident outside India to make such investment subject to such terms and conditions as may be considered necessary.3.3.3 Financing Options for CorporatesCompanies registered in India can raise finances through Share Capital or Debentures and Borrowings.3.3.3.1 Share CapitalThe Companies Act, 1956 allows for two kinds of share capital, viz., Preference share capital (preferred stock) and Equity share capital (with/without voting rights). Apart from this, private companies which are not subsidiaries of public company have the option of raising funds through Venture Capital.The issue of shares to the public is governed by the guidelines issued by the Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI) the body that regulates and oversees t he functioning of Indian Stock markets and the RBI.A company issuing shares or debentures has to comply with SEBI disclosure requirements with regards to its prospectus. The prospectus has to be approved by the stock exchange and scrutinized by SEBI and then filed with the Registrar of Companies.Indian companies having foreign investment approval through FIPB route do not require any further clearance from RBI for receiving inward remittance and issue of shares to the foreign investors. The companies are required to notify the concerned Regional office of the RBI of receipt of inward remittances within 30 days of such receipt and within 30 days of issue of shares to the foreign investors or NRIs.Equity participation by international financial institutions such as ADB, IFC, CDC, DEG, etc., in domestic companies is permitted through automatic route, subject to SEBI/RBI regulations and sector specific cap on FDI.In all other cases a company may issue shares as per the RBI regulations. Other relevant guidelines of SEBI and RBI, including the SEBI (Substantial Acquisition of Shares and Takeovers) Regulations, 1997, wherever applicable, would need to be followed.The Companies Act does not specify the nominal value of shares. According to RBI/SEBI Guidelines, in case of listed companies, the issue price shall be either at the ave